Cited by 5,902Aging and Gerontology ResearchCognitive Abilities and TestingCognitive Functions and Memory

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 113 of the 113 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition

Salthouse, Timothy A.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403

Cites

113 of 113 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60041-9 · Cited by 3,456
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., Knight, B. G., & Park, D. C. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2012-0-07221-3 · Cited by 3,440
Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance.
Hunter, J. E., & Hunter, R. F. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.96.1.72 · Cited by 2,107
Life-Span Development and Behavior
Baltes, P. B., Featherman, D. L., Lerner, R. M., Brim, O. G., & Perlmutter, M. C. (1984) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,805
Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315808246 · Cited by 1,771
Untitled work
(1991) · Cited by 1,767
Decomposing adult age differences in working memory
Salthouse, T. A., & Babcock, R. L. (1991) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.5.763 · Cited by 1,373
Self-citation
Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence
Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1967) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(67)90011-x · Cited by 1,331
Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging
Salthouse, T. A. (2016) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315785363 · Cited by 947
Self-citation

Show all 113 references

Sorted by citations

Items 2,401–2,500 of 5,537

Computerized Cognitive Training for Major Depressive Disorder: What’s Next?
Motter, J. N., Devanand, D. P., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Sneed, J. R. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00137 · Cited by 24
“This is known as the simultaneity mechanism (33).”
BackgroundInfluential
Regulatory focus moderates the influence of age-related stereotypic expectancies on older adults’ test performance and threat-based concerns
Gaillard, M., Desmette, D., & Keller, J. (2010) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2010.11.001 · Cited by 22
“Indeed, since age was shown to alter some fundamental driving abilities such as visual signal detection on the road (Rogé et al., 2008) and reaction time (Salthouse, 1996), it seems to be of crucial importance to reduce any additional impediment such as stereotype threat effects.”
Background
Keeping Priorities: The Role of Working Memory and Selective Attention in Cognitive Aging
de Fockert, J. W. (2005) · Science of Aging Knowledge Environment · doi:10.1126/sageke.2005.44.pe34 · Cited by 22
Components of Speech Prosody and their Use in Detection of Syntactic Structure by Older Adults
Hoyte, K. J., Brownell, H., & Wingfield, A. (2009) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610730802565091 · Cited by 22
Adults with sickle cell disease may perform cognitive tests as well as controls when processing speed is taken into account: a preliminary case–control study
Crawford, R. D., & Jonassaint, C. R. (2015) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.12755 · Cited by 22
Genetic architecture of context processing in late middle age: More than one underlying mechanism.
Kremen, W. S., Panizzon, M. S., Xian, H., Barch, D. M., Franz, C. E., Grant, M. D., Toomey, R., & Lyons, M. J. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0025098 · Cited by 22
“Many age-related cognitive declines have been associated with age-related slowing of processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
Age-related deficits in low-level inhibitory motor control.
Schlaghecken, F., Birak, K. S., & Maylor, E. A. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0023832 · Cited by 21
Specialized Verbal Working Memory for Language Comprehension
Caplan, D. N., Waters, G. S., & DeDe, G. (2008) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195168648.003.0011 · Cited by 22
Aging and memory improvement through semantic clustering: The role of list-presentation format.
Kuhlmann, B. G., & Touron, D. R. (2016) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000117 · Cited by 22
“higher cognitive functions, including episodic memory (e.g., Park, 2000; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundMethod
Linguistic Context Versus Semantic Competition in Word Recognition by Younger and Older Adults With Cochlear Implants
Amichetti, N. M., Atagi, E., Kong, Y.-Y., & Wingfield, A. (2017) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000469 · Cited by 22
Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation combined with cognitive training on cognitive functioning in older adults with HIV: A pilot study
Fazeli, P. L., Woods, A. J., Pope, C. N., Vance, D. E., & Ball, K. (2017) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2017.1357037 · Cited by 24
“Very Low Risk to 5-High Risk, which is a function of the 3 subtests scores with scores of 2 or higher indicative of at least some SOP decrement; for all UFOV scores higher scores reflect worse functioning); the Letter and Pattern Comparison Task (Salthouse, 1991) (SOP) (scores reflect number of correct responses and h…”
Background
A two‐path model of auditory modulation detection using temporal fine structure and envelope cues
Ewert, S. D., Paraouty, N., & Lorenzi, C. (2018) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.13846 · Cited by 22
“…are, in addition, several other structural and physiological changes at the cortical level with ageing (for a review, see Burke & Barnes, 2006), which may contribute to a decline in processing efficiency or ‘cognitive slowing’ (Salthouse & Lichty, 1985; Schneider et al., 1994; Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
Inhibitory Control Impairment on Somatosensory Gating Due to Aging: An Event-Related Potential Study
Terrasa, J. L., Montoya, P., González‐Roldán, A. M., & Sitges, C. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00280 · Cited by 22
“This outcome also support the processing speed hypothesis, in which aging-related performance deficits could be attributed to a generalized slowing of processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
Result
The Model of Selection, Optimization, Compensation
Moghimi, D., Scheibe, S., & Freund, A. M. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812756-8.00004-9 · Cited by 23
“The underlying assumption is that older workers face physical and cognitive losses (Salthouse, 1996), which might negatively affect their occupational performance and subjective well-being.”
Background
Age-related changes in amplitude, latency and specialization of ERP responses to faces and watches
Boutet, I., Shah, D. K., Collin, C. A., Berti, S., Persike, M., & Meinhardt‐Injac, B. (2020) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2019.1708253 · Cited by 24
Longitudinal Changes in Auditory and Cognitive Function in Middle-Aged and Older Adults
Humes, L. E. (2021) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00274 · Cited by 21
Higher free testosterone level is associated with faster visual processing and more flanker interference in older men
Strien, J. W. V., Weber, R. F. A., Burdorf, A., & Bangma, C. H. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.10.020 · Cited by 22
“The speed of processing account of cognitive decline proposes that there is a generalized slowing of information processing with increasing age (Salthouse, 1996), while the inhibitory control account holds that there is a reduction in the ability to suppress irrelevant information and improper responses (Hasher et al.”
Background
Brain Processing of Emotional Scenes in Aging: Effect of Arousal and Affective Context
Mathieu, N. G., Gentaz, É., Harquel, S., Vercueil, L., Chauvin, A., Bonnet, S., & Campagne, A. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099523 · Cited by 22
“slower in the elderly compared to young people [52].”
Result
The Effects of Attention Switching on Encoding and Retrieval of Words in Younger and Older Adults
Hogan, M., Kelly, C. A. M., & Craik, F. I. M. (2006) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610730600553935 · Cited by 22
“THE EFFECTS OF ATTENTION SWITCHING ON ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL OF WORDS IN YOUNGER AND OLDER ADULTS”
Background
Effect of Rate-Alteration on Speech Perception in Noise in Older Adults With Normal Hearing and Hearing Impairment
Adams, E. M., Gordon-Hickey, S., Morlas, H., et al. (2012) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/1059-0889(2011/10-0023 · Cited by 22
The relevance of situation awareness in older adults’ cognitive functioning: a review
Caserta, R. J., & Abrams, L. (2007) · European Review of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1007/s11556-007-0018-x · Cited by 23
“simultaneity mechanism are responsible for such dro ps in processing speeds ( 61 ).”
Background
Near peripheral motion contrast threshold predicts older drivers’ simulator performance
Henderson, S., Gagnon, S., Collin, C. A., Tabone, R., & Stinchcombe, A. (2012) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2012.03.035 · Cited by 22
Examination of the processing speed account in a population‐based longitudinal study with narrow age cohort design
Sternäng, O., Wåhlin, Å., & Nilsson, L. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00663.x · Cited by 22
Aging and Implicit Learning of an Invariant Association
Howard, D. V., Howard, J. H., Dennis, N. A., et al. (2008) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.2.p100 · Cited by 22
“When age-related decreases occur in the speed of processing, older people are able to keep fewer items activated in memory simultaneously (Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
Perceptual Processing and Search Efficiency of Young and Older Adults in a Simple-Feature Search Task: A Staircase Approach
Davis, E. T., Fujawa, G. E., & Shikano, T. (2002) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/57.4.p324 · Cited by 22
“This out-of-context analysis is similar to that used by Salthouse (1996) and by Madden and colleagues (1996).”
Method
The Effects of Attentional Engagement on Route Learning Performance in a Virtual Environment: An Aging Study
Hartmeyer, S., Grzeschik, R., Wolbers, T., & Wiener, J. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00235 · Cited by 27
“This is consistent with theories of general agingrelated declines in information processing speed (Salthouse, 1996, 2000; Glisky, 2007).”
Result
Aging and Repetition Priming for Targets and Distracters in a Working Memory Task
Caggiano, D. M., Jiang, Y., & Parasuraman, R. (2006) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/138255890969555 · Cited by 22
“In addition, processing speed ( Salthouse, 1996 ) and levels-of-processing ( Morris et al, 1988 ) accounts of the age-related working memory deficit have also been offered.”
Background
Speed of Visual Search in Old Age: 1950 to 2016
Rabbitt, P. (2016) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw097 · Cited by 21
“A third, and very different, use is as a variable in psychometric models using factor analyses (Salthouse, 1996) or structural equation modeling (Rabbitt, Mogapi et al.”
Method
Initiation, Inhibition and Strategy Generation Across the Healthy Adult Lifespan.
Gibson, E., Barker, M., Martin, A. K., & Robinson, G. (2018) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acy057 · Cited by 17
Cognitive functions underlying prospective memory deficits: A study on traumatic brain injury
Palermo, L., Cinelli, M. C., Piccardi, L., Felice, S. D., Ciurli, P., Incoccia, C., Zompanti, L., & Guariglia, C. (2018) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2018.1501374 · Cited by 21
“As pointed out by Salthouse (1996), slowing of cognitive processing may result in impairments of higher-order processes, since poor speed may prevent all the relevant pieces of information to be simultaneously available when needed.”
Background
Reduced arterial compliance along the cerebrovascular tree predicts cognitive slowing in multiple sclerosis: Evidence for a neurovascular uncoupling hypothesis
Sivakolundu, D. K., West, K. L., Maruthy, G. B., Zuppichini, M. D., Turner, M. P., Abdelkarim, D., Zhao, Y., Nguyen, D. C., Spence, J. S., Lu, H., et al. (2019) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1177/1352458519866605 · Cited by 21
Aging, neurocognitive reserve, and the healthy brain
Huang, C., & Huang, H.-W. (2019) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2019.07.006 · Cited by 22
Controlling for Placebo Effects in Computerized Cognitive Training Studies With Healthy Older Adults From 2016-2018: Systematic Review
Masurovsky, A. (2020) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/14030 · Cited by 21
“As the many of the world’s nations face increasingly older populations, much attention has been given to how to limit the deleterious effects of aging on cognitive functioning, which are marked by a decrease in performance on a number of cognitive tests in the domains of memory, speed of processing, executive function…”
Background
Symbol Digit Modalities Test: Greek Normative Data for the Oral and Written Version and Discriminative Validity in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis
Messinis, L., Bakirtzis, C., Kosmidis, M. H., Economou, A., Nasios, G., Anyfantis, E., Konitsiotis, S., Ntoskou, A., Peristeri, E., Dardiotis, E., et al. (2020) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acaa028 · Cited by 21
Processing of Degraded Speech in Brain Disorders
Jiang, J., Benhamou, E., Waters, S., Johnson, J. C. S., Volkmer, A., Weil, R. S., Marshall, C. R., Warren, J. D., & Hardy, C. J. D. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11030394 · Cited by 18
Cognitive reserve estimated with a life experience questionnaire outperforms education in predicting performance on MoCA: Italian normative data
Montemurro, S., Daini, R., Tagliabue, C. F., Guzzetti, S., Gualco, G., Mondini, S., & Arcara, G. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03062-6 · Cited by 20
“Early studies about age-related effects on processing speed (Salthouse, 1993; Salthouse, 1996) have set the ground for further research demonstrating that aging does indeed affect a wide range of behavioral, cognitive, and neurological functions (Hohman et al., 2017; Jockwitz et al., 2019; Madden…”
Background
Neuropsychological Correlates of Changes in Driving Behavior Among Clinically Healthy Older Adults
Aschenbrenner, A. J., Murphy, S. A., Doherty, J. M., Johnson, A. M., Bayat, S., Walker, A. I. B., Peña, Y., Hassenstab, J. J., Morris, J. C., & Babulal, G. M. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbac101 · Cited by 20
An international validation of the AO spine subaxial injury classification system
Karamian, B. A., Schroeder, G. D., Lambrechts, M. J., et al. (2022) · European Spine Journal · doi:10.1007/s00586-022-07467-6 · Cited by 21
The effect of age on task switching: updated and extended meta-analyses
Chen, E.-H., & Hsieh, S. (2023) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-023-01794-z · Cited by 25
“A few pronounced aging theories exist in the literature, such as general slowing due to the age effect (Salthouse, 1996) and a general executive function deficit (Braver et al., 2001; Raz, 2000; West, 1996).”
Background
Physical Activity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Cognition Across the Lifespan
McAuley, E., Mullen, S. P., & Hillman, C. H. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6852-3_14 · Cited by 21
“Some researchers have proposed that domain-specific deficits (e.g., memory, attention, and inhibition problems ) underlie age-related decline, whereas others have suggested a generalized slowing in cognitive function (e.g., Salthouse 1996).”
Background
Numerical Cognition during Cognitive Aging
Uittenhove, K. L., & Lemaire, P. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199642342.013.045 · Cited by 26
The influence of complex working memory span task administration methods on prediction of higher level cognition and metacognitive control of response times
McCabe, D. P. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.7.868 · Cited by 21
“Because aging is associated with general declines in speed of processing ( Salthouse, 1996 ), but slower processing should reduce cognitive load once the general age-related decline in speed of processing is controlled for, slower processing may be related to improved recall performance.”
Background
Normes d'associations verbales chez des sujets âgés
Tarrago, R., Martin, S., de la Haye, F., et al. (2005) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2005.05.001 · Cited by 21
Website task performance by older adults
Priest, L., Nayak, L., & Stuart‐Hamilton, I. (2006) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/01449290500402668 · Cited by 21
“It has been extensively demonstrated that the age-related decline in fluid intelligence has a deleterious effect on the learning of new information (Salthouse 1996), selective attention to target stimuli surrounded by distractors (e.g. Rabbitt 1979), speed of response to information and other tasks…”
Background
Employability en individuele ontwikkeling op het werk
van Dam, K., HEIJDEN, B. I. J. M. V. D., & Schyns, B. (2006) · Gedrag & Organisatie · doi:10.5117/2006.019.001.005 · Cited by 22
Meta-analysis of the association of the SLC6A3 3′-UTR VNTR with cognition
Ettinger, U., Merten, N., & Kambeitz, J. P. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.021 · Cited by 21
Older but still fluent? Insights from the intrinsically active baseline configuration of the aging brain using a data driven graph-theoretical approach
Muller, A. M., Mérillat, S., & Jäncke, L. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.12.027 · Cited by 20
An Event Related Potentials Study of the Effects of Age, Load and Maintenance Duration on Working Memory Recognition
Pinal, D., Zurrón, M., & Dı́az, F. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143117 · Cited by 21
“Also, it has been hypothesized that age-related decline in this and other cognitive capacities is related to a generalized slowing of processing speed [11] and to a decrease in processing resources [12].”
Background
The Effect of Emotion on Visual Attention to Information and Decision Making in the Context of Informed Consent Process for Clinical Trials
Ferrer, R. A., Stanley, J. T., Graff, K. A., Klein, W. M. P., Goodman, N. E., Nelson, W. L., & Salazar, S. (2016) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1871 · Cited by 21
Similar Trajectory of Executive Functioning Performance over 5 years among individuals with Bipolar Disorder and Unaffected Controls using Latent Growth Modeling
Ryan, K. A., Assari, S., Pester, B., Hinrichs, K. H., Angers, K., Baker, A., Marshall, D., Stringer, D. M., Saunders, E. F. H., Kamali, M., et al. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.04.016 · Cited by 21
Frequent L2 language use enhances executive control in bilinguals
de Leeuw, E., & BOGULSKI, C. A. (2016) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728916000201 · Cited by 21
The beneficial effects of cognitive training with simple calculation and reading aloud in an elderly postsurgical population: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial
Kulason, K. O., Nouchi, R., Hoshikawa, Y., Noda, M., Okada, Y., & Kawashima, R. (2016) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1476-0 · Cited by 22
“In addition, even healthy elderly adults may experience a decline in several cognitive functions, including memory [26], attention [27], executive functions [28, 29], and processing speed [30].”
Background
Clinimetric validity of the Trail Making Test Czech version in Parkinson’s disease and normative data for older adults
Bezdíček, O., Štěpánková, H., Axelrod, B. N., Nikolai, T., Šulc, Z., Jech, R., Růžička, E., & Kopeček, M. (2017) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1324045 · Cited by 20
Preserved canonicality of the BOLD hemodynamic response reflects healthy cognition: Insights into the healthy brain through the window of Multiple Sclerosis
Turner, M. P., Hubbard, N. A., Sivakolundu, D. K., Himes, L. M., Hutchison, J. L., Hart, J., Spence, J. S., Frohman, E. M., Frohman, T. C., Okuda, D. T., et al. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.081 · Cited by 23
“…the hypothesis that mechanisms underlying HRF latency (e.g., delay in functional hyperemia) play a larger role in speed of processing (an ability known to be central to general cognitive performance; Salthouse, 1996; Vernon, 1983) than those underlying peak amplitude (e.g., oxygen extraction).”
Influential
Modelling the industrial workforce dynamics and exit in the ageing society
Dimovski, V., Grah, B., & Colnar, S. (2019) · IFAC-PapersOnLine · doi:10.1016/j.ifacol.2019.11.610 · Cited by 21
Looking the same, but remembering differently: Preserved eye-movement synchrony with age during movie watching.
Davis, E. E., Chemnitz, E., Collins, T. K., Geerligs, L., & Campbell, K. L. (2021) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000615 · Cited by 27
Altered cortical spectrotemporal processing with age-related hearing loss
Trujillo, M. S., & Razak, K. A. (2013) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00423.2013 · Cited by 21
Differential effects of delay on time-based prospective memory in younger and older adults
McBride, D. M., Coane, J. H., Drwal, J., & LaRose, S.-A. M. (2013) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2013.765937 · Cited by 19
“For example, older adults, who typically have deficits in monitoring and attentional processes (Salthouse, 1996) and self-initiating retrieval (Craik, 1986), sometimes show no decrements in PM performance compared to young adults (e.”
Environmental support hypothesis in designing multimedia training for older adults: Is less always more?
Pachman, M., & Ke, F. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.08.011 · Cited by 23
Age-Related Difference in Relationships Between Cognitive Processing Speed and General Cognitive Status
Tam, H. M. K., Lam, C. L. M., Huang, H., Wang, B., & Lee, T. M. C. (2014) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2013.860602 · Cited by 21
“Our findings are largely consistent with the concept of cognitive processing speed theory proposed by Salthouse (1996), with cognitive processing speed largely accounting for age-related cognitive deterioration.”
BackgroundResult
Age and probabilistic reasoning: Biases in conjunctive, disjunctive and Bayesian judgements in early and late adulthood
Fisk, J. E. (2005) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.488 · Cited by 21
Difficulties in Planning Among Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: A Relative Consequence of Deficits in Information Processing Speed
Owens, E. M., Denney, D. R., & LYNCH, S. G. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713000155 · Cited by 21
Age differences in item manipulation span: The case of letter-number sequencing.
Emery, L., Myerson, J., & Hale, S. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.1.75 · Cited by 21
“Salthouse (1996) proposed two mechanisms by which age differences in speed of processing may account for age differences in cognition.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Environment learning using descriptions or navigation: The involvement of working memory in young and older adults
Meneghetti, C., Borella, E., Carbone, E., Martinelli, M., & Béni, R. D. (2015) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12145 · Cited by 25
Variation in Working Memory across the Life Span
Hale, S., Myerson, J., Emery, L., Lawrence, B. M., & Dufault, C. (2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195168648.003.0008 · Cited by 25
Executive functioning in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients without cognitive impairment: A task-switching protocol
Migliore, S., Curcio, G., Couyoumdjian, A., Ghazaryan, A., Landi, D., Moffa, F., Quintiliani, L., Squitieri, F., Palmieri, M. G., Filippi, M. M., et al. (2017) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1177/1352458517719149 · Cited by 21
The Irrelevant Speech Effect and the Level of Interference in Aging
Gerven, P. W. M. V., Meijer, W. A., Vermeeren, A., Vuurman, E. F. P. M., & Jolles, J. (2007) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610730701319145 · Cited by 21
“This pattern of results is in line with cognitive slowing and inhibitory decline theories of aging (e.g., Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Salthouse, 1996).”
Result
Information processing speed in ecstasy (MDMA) users
Wareing, M., Fisk, J. E., Montgomery, C., Murphy, P. N., & Chandler, M. D. (2007) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.827 · Cited by 20
An Eighteenth-Century Theory of Musical Cognition?
Raz, C. (2018) · Journal of Music Theory · doi:10.1215/00222909-7127670 · Cited by 20
“However, the notion that rate limits on processing determine important aspects of cognition has been widely accepted in modern psychology (Salthouse 1996).”
Background
Literacy effects on language and vision: Emergent effects from an amodal shared resource (ASR) computational model
Smith, A. C., Padraic Monaghan, B., & Huettig, F. (2014) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2014.07.002 · Cited by 23
“General processing speed (Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Salthouse, 1996) has been shown to correlate with performance on a wide range of cognitive tasks (Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Li et al., 2004; Salthouse, 2005), and has been proposed to be the mechanism of increased cognitive efficiency as a consequence…”
Background
Memory plasticity in older adults: Cognitive predictors of training response and maintenance following learning of number–consonant mnemonic
Sandberg, P., Rönnlund, M., Derwinger, A., & Neely, A. S. (2015) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2015.1046459 · Cited by 20
“Processing speed and working memory capacity are central factors processing resource accounts of age-related memory deficits (Park et al., 2002, Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
Reconciling Two Computational Models of Working Memory in Aging
Hoareau, V., Lemaire, B., Portrat, S., et al. (2016) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12184 · Cited by 20
“Another explanation that is proposed in the literature (Salthouse, 1996) suggests that aging goes along with a slower processing speed.”
Cognitive processing speed mediates the effects of cardiovascular disease on executive functioning.
Liebel, S. W., Jones, E. C., Oshri, A., Hallowell, E. S., Jerskey, B. A., Gunstad, J., & Sweet, L. H. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000324 · Cited by 21
“CPS has long been considered to have a pervasive role in cognitive aging (Birren & Fisher, 1995; Salthouse, 1996; TuckerDrob, Johnson, & Jones, 2009), and these effects are likely exacerbated by CVD.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Slowed Information Processing Speed at Four Years Poststroke: Evidence and Predictors from a Population-Based Follow-up Study
Mahon, S., Faulkner, J. W., Barker-Collo, S. L., Krishnamurthi, R., Jones, K., & Feigin, V. L. (2019) · Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2019.104513 · Cited by 20
Executive deficits in schizophrenia: mediation by processing speed and its relationships with aging
Thuaire, F., Rondepierre, F., Vallet, G. T., Jalenques, I., & Izaute, M. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720002871 · Cited by 25
“This result is consistent with Salthouse’s Processing Speed Theory (Salthouse, 1996) and suggests PS should be efficient at successfully executing simple cognitive operations and keeping the result available for more complex operations such as cognitive strategies.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Sex-related differences in the relationship between β-amyloid and cognitive trajectories in older adults.
Lindbergh, C. A., Hillblom Aging Network, Casaletto, K. B., Staffaroni, A. M., Joie, R. L., Iaccarino, L., Edwards, L., Tsoy, E., Elahi, F. M., Walters, S. M., et al. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000696 · Cited by 21
“We specifically assessed episodic memory, executive functioning, and processing speed given the sensitivity of these cognitive functions to brain aging and early AD changes (Buckner, 2004; Han et al., 2017; Ho & Nation, 2018; Salthouse, 1996).”
Method
Age-Related Changes in Speech Understanding: Peripheral Versus Cognitive Influences
Gordon-Salant, S. M., Shader, M. J., & Wingfield, A. (2020) · Springer handbook of auditory research · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49367-7_9 · Cited by 25
Distributed functional connectivity predicts neuropsychological test performance among older adults
Kwak, S., Kim, H., Kim, H., Youm, Y., & Chey, J. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25436 · Cited by 19
Changes in theta and alpha oscillatory signatures of attentional control in older and middle age
Huizeling, E., Wang, H., Holland, C., & Kessler, K. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15259 · Cited by 21
“Over past decades, the predominant view of age- related changes in cognitive function was that of a continuous decline (Dempster, 1992; Salthouse, 1996; West, 1996).”
Background
Speech Perception in Older Adults: An Interplay of Hearing, Cognition, and Learning?
Shvartzman, L. S., Lavie, L., & Banai, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.816864 · Cited by 19
“Consistent with the ELU model, studies suggest that individual differences in cognition are associated with individual differences in the processing of speech under adverse listening conditions (e.g., Salthouse, 1994, 1996).”
Result
The Effectiveness of Serious Games on Cognitive Processing Speed Among Older Adults With Cognitive Impairment: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Abd-Alrazaq, A. A., Ahmed, A., Alali, H., Aldardour, A. M., & Househ, M. S. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/36754 · Cited by 20
“These disorders imply a decline in various cognitive functions such as memory [6,7], executive function [8,9], attention [10], and processing speed [11].”
Background
Effect of horticultural activities on quality of life, perceived stress, and working memory of community-dwelling older adults
Chan, H., Chu, H.-Y., & Chen, M. (2022) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2022.10.016 · Cited by 24
Age effects on cognitive functions and speech-in-noise processing: An event-related potential study with cochlear-implant users and normal-hearing listeners
Burkhardt, P., Müller, V., Meister, H., Weglage, A., Lang‐Roth, R., Walger, M., & Sandmann, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.1005859 · Cited by 20
“Frontiers in Neuroscience 06 frontiersin.org In order to explore whether CI users show comparable age effects on cognition as NH listeners (e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Park et al., 2002), we tested the participants with four established neuropsychological tests.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Social Balance Ball: Designing and Evaluating an Exergame That Promotes Social Interaction between Older and Younger Players
Qiu, S., Kaisar, E., Ding, R., Han, T., Hu, J., & Matthias Rauterberg, A. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2175157 · Cited by 20
“People become slower (e.g., the processing speed decreases) as they grow older (Loos & Kaufman, 2018; Salthouse, 1996, 2004).”
Background
Increased cognitive effort costs in healthy aging and preclinical Alzheimer’s disease.
Aschenbrenner, A. J., Crawford, J. L., Peelle, J. E., Fagan, A. M., Benzinger, T. L. S., Morris, J. C., Hassenstab, J. J., & Braver, T. S. (2023) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000742 · Cited by 20
“…that cognitive abilities become more tightly correlated in older age may suggest the presence of a common mechanism, such as processing speed (Salthouse, 1996) or cognitive control/WM (Braver & Barch, 2002) or sensory changes (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997), that underlies the majority of…”
Longitudinal changes in gray matter correspond to changes in cognition across the lifespan: implications for theories of cognition
Smith, E. T., Hennessee, J. P., Wig, G. S., Frank, S., González, H. M., Bacci, J. R., Chan, M. Y., Carreno, C. A., Kennedy, K. M., Rodrigue, K. M., et al. (2023) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.04.014 · Cited by 21
“This is an interesting finding in light of the known sensitivity of processing speed measures to agerelated cognitive decline (Salthouse, 1996).”
Long trial durations normalise the interference effect and sequential updating during healthy aging
Aisenberg-Shafran, D., Sapir, A., d’Avossa, G., & Henik, A. (2014) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.10.005 · Cited by 23
“Instead, in line with Salthouse (1996), it is possible that slower recruitment of inhibition can account for the larger Simon effect and interference in seniors, while the lack of a sequential Gratton effect in short ITIs can be explained by difficulty using the recruited process in the next trial.”
Background
Relationship between fitness and cognitive performance in younger and older adults
Newson, R. S., & Kemps, E. (2008) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870440701421545 · Cited by 19
“Consistent with findings in the cognitive ageing literature, younger adults performed at a higher level than older adults on all of the cognitive tasks (Anstey & Smith, 1999; Salthouse, 1996).”
Result
Intersection crossing assist system: Transition from a road-side to an in-vehicle system
Becic, E., Manser, M., Creaser, J., & Donath, M. (2012) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2012.05.010 · Cited by 22
Special Series Introduction: NIH EXAMINER and the Assessment of Executive Functioning
Kramer, J. H. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713001185 · Cited by 22
“Some investigators suggest that the construct of executive functioning may overlap so much with processing speed and fluid intelligence as to be redundant (Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse, Atkinson, & Berish, 2003).”
Background
Influence of Encoding Difficulty, Word Frequency, and Phonological Regularity on Age Differences in Word Naming
Allen, P. A., Bucur, B., Grabbe, J. W., Work, T., & Madden, D. J. (2011) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2011.568805 · Cited by 20
“It could be due to general slowing across multiple processing stages (e.g., Cerella, 1985; Madden, 1992; Salthouse, 1996), or more specific, age-related deficits at orthographic encoding (Allen, Madden, & Crozier, 1991; Allen, Madden, Weber, & Groth, 1993), lexical access (Balota & Ferraro, 1993,…”
Background
Extensive occupational finger use delays age effects in tactileperception—an ERP study
Reuter, E., Voelcker‐Rehage, C., Vieluf, S., Winneke, A. H., & Godde, B. (2014) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-014-0634-2 · Cited by 19
“Finally, we expected longer peak latencies for somatosensory ERPs and the P300 in older adults, indicating general slowing of processing with age (Bolton & Staines, 2012; Peters, 2002; Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
Aging effects on visual evoked potentials (VEPs) for motion direction discrimination
Kavcic, V., Martin, T., & Zalar, B. (2013) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.05.012 · Cited by 20
Functional role of left PMd and left M1 during preparation and execution of left hand movements in older adults
Fujiyama, H., Hinder, M. R., & Summers, J. J. (2013) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00075.2013 · Cited by 20
“…magnetic stimulation ONE OF THE MOST APPARENT behavioral changes accompanying advancing age is progressive slowing of volitional motor actions (i.e., reaction times) after extrinsic cues that require a rapid motor response (see, e.g., Hunter et al. 2001; Morgan et al. 1994; Salthouse 1991, 1996).”
Background
Preparatory Processes and Compensatory Effort in Older and Younger Participants in a Driving-Like Dual Task
Wild–Wall, N., Hahn, M., & Falkenstein, M. (2011) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720811402068 · Cited by 20
“Although a generalized age-related slowing of cognitive processes and response speed (Salthouse, 1996) has been widely accepted, aging is also associated with a process-specific decline, mainly affecting cognitive or executive processes, such as attention, working memory, or set shifting (Span,…”
Background
Reading in normally aging adults
Gordon, P. C., Lowder, M. W., & Hoedemaker, R. S. (2016) · John Benjamins Publishing Company eBooks · doi:10.1075/z.200.07gor · Cited by 23
How older adults use cognition in sentence-final word recognition
Cahana-Amitay, D., Spiro, A., Sayers, J. T., Oveis, A. C., Higby, E., Ojo, E. A., Duncan, E. S., Goral, M., Hyun, J., Albert, M. L., et al. (2015) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2015.1111291 · Cited by 20
“…important factors in aging: (1) decline in hearing acuity (e.g., 2007; Humes, 1996; Schneider, Daneman, Murphy, & See, 2000) and (2) neurocognitive changes affecting working memory (WM), attention, and processing speed (e.g., Rabbitt et al., 2007; Salthouse, 1996; Wingfield & Stine-Morrow, 2000).”
Background
Cognition in Early Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: Consequences May Be Relative to Working Memory
Berrigan, L. I., LeFevre, J., Rees, L. M., Berard, J. A., Freedman, M. S., & Walker, L. A. S. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713000696 · Cited by 20
“Salthouse (1996) advised that tasks assessing processing speed should be simple enough such that performance is not overly influenced by the individual’s knowledge or other cognitive abilities besides processing speed, but not so simple that the task measures only sensory and motor processes and…”
Background
Age-Related Preservation of Trust Following Minor Transgressions
Bailey, P. E., Petridis, K., McLennan, S. N., Ruffman, T., & Rendell, P. G. (2016) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw141 · Cited by 17
What Is Old at Work? Moving Past Chronological Age
Cleveland, J. N., & Hanscom, M. E. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-46781-2_2 · Cited by 21

Authors: Salthouse, T. A.
Affiliations: Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
Corresponding author: Salthouse, Timothy A.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 3
Pages: 403-428
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403
OpenAlex: W2039752037
Semantic Scholar: 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
Cited by: 5,902
References: 113
Citations by year: 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
FWCI: 81.40
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks