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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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“People with HIV are vulnerable to speed of processing declines [33,34], especially as they age [30-32].”
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Troche, S. J., Thomas, P., Tadin, D., & Rammsayer, T. H. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.12.002 · Cited by 20
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Huang, J., Hegele, M., & Billino, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02285 · Cited by 20
“Since slowing represents a core primitive of functional changes with increasing age (Salthouse, 1996), a comparison of latency differences between age groups did not allow for specific conclusions.”
BackgroundMioni, G., Cardullo, S., Ciavarelli, A., & Stablum, F. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00170-8 · Cited by 19
“Because processing speed is one of the strongest predictors of performance across cognitive tasks in older adults (Salthouse and Ferrer-Caja 2003), it is the foundation of a major hypothesis for age-related cognitive decline (Eckert et al. 2010; Salthouse 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialCerebrovascular disease: Neuroimaging of cerebral small vessel disease
Shaaban, C. E., Jorgensen, D. R., Gianaros, P. J., Mettenburg, J., & Rosano, C. (2019) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.07.008 · Cited by 21
Age-related deficits in speech production: From phonological planning to motor implementation
Tremblay, P., Poulin, J., Martel‐Sauvageau, V., & Denis, C. (2019) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2019.110695 · Cited by 22
“…with decline in working memory (e.g. Bopp & Verhaeghen, 2005; Park, Lautenschlager, Hedden, Davidson, Smith, & Smith, 2002; Schroeder, 2014) and attention (e.g. Park et al., 2002; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse, 2009), which could exacerbate, or even accounted for, decline in speech production.”
BackgroundNew directions in sleep and memory research: the role of autonomic activity
Whitehurst, L. N., Chen, P., Naji, M., & Mednick, S. C. (2019) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.11.001 · Cited by 20
“Given the classical global slowing hypothesis of aging [58], as well as specific findings of deterioration in temporal processing in auditory [59] and visual [60] function, the correlative finding of decreased SO-HR timing in older adults would be consistent with considering this measuring as a global biomarker.”
BackgroundAge-Related Changes in Verbal Working Memory Strategies
Chevalère, J., Lemaire, P., & Camos, V. (2020) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2020.1716152 · Cited by 18
“Contrasting with an abundant literature documenting classic effects of aging on WM capacity (e.g., Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Salthouse, 1996), research on age-related differences in strategic aspects of WM maintenance is more scarce (Bailey, Dunlosky, & Hertzog, 2009).”
BackgroundGalandra, C., Crespi, C., Basso, G., Manera, M. R., Giorgi, I., Poggi, P., & Canessa, N. (2020) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-019-00248-8 · Cited by 20
Scarlett, S., Kenny, R. A., O’Connell, M. D. L., Nolan, H., & Looze, C. D. (2020) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5473 · Cited by 20
“Processing speed is understood to be a strong predictor of age‐related cognitive decline and shown to have negative implications in everyday life such as slower functional mobility in older adults.(76,77) The association with cognitive decline and actigraphy‐based TST was not as clear as in self‐reported measures.”
BackgroundBaethge, A., & Rigotti, T. (2015) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/wav014 · Cited by 23
The contribution of cognitive psychology to the study of human intelligence
Cornoldi, C. (2006) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440500215889 · Cited by 20
“, & Salthouse, T. A. (1994). Processing speed as a mental capacity.”
BackgroundInfluence of age, thought content, and anxiety on suppression of intrusive thoughts
Beadel, J. R., Green, J. S., Hosseinbor, S., & Teachman, B. A. (2012) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.12.002 · Cited by 22
“Increasing age is associated with a myriad of cognitive changes, including deficits in working memory (Salthouse, 1990) and processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundThe Limits of Attention for Visual Perception and Action in Aging
Lee, T.-Y., & Hsieh, S. (2009) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580902741351 · Cited by 19
“Numerous behavior studies have reported significant decreases in cognitive performance, such as longer reaction time (RT) and decreased accuracy (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundUse of Auditory and Visual Stimulation to Improve Cognitive Abilities in Learning-Disabled Children
Olmstead, R. (2005) · Journal of Neurotherapy · doi:10.1300/j184v09n02_04 · Cited by 18
Madden, D. J., Parks, E. L., Tallman, C. W., Boylan, M. A., Hoagey, D. A., Cocjin, S. B., Johnson, M. A., Chou, Y., Potter, G. G., Chen, N., et al. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23509 · Cited by 21
“Although age-related decline is evident in fluid cognitive abilities relying on information processing speed and executive function [Craik and Bialystok, 2006; Hommel et al., 2004; Kramer and Madden, 2008; Salthouse, 1996], top-down attention based on target probability or context is maintained or even enhanced during…”
McGregor, K., Crosson, B., Mammino, K., Omar, J., García, P. S., & Nocera, J. R. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00422 · Cited by 20
“Though the motor system is relatively spared as compared to other cognitive domains such as executive function, aging is associated with decreased upper extremity function (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundHemispheric asymmetries in vigilance and cerebral arousal mechanisms in younger and older adults.
Cherry, B. J., & Hellige, J. B. (1999) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.13.1.111 · Cited by 23
Angel, L., Isingrini, M. L., Bouazzaoui, B., Taconnat, L., Allan, K., Granjon, L., & Fay, S. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.03.040 · Cited by 21
O'Hara, R. M., Sommer, B. R., Way, N., KRAEMER, H. C., Taylor, J. L., & Murphy, G. M. (2007) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.12.001 · Cited by 24
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN HEALTHY OLDER MEN: A ROLE FOR AEROBIC POWER?
Aleman, A., de Haan, E. H. F., Verhaar, H. J. J., Samson, M., de Vries, W. R., & Koppeschaar, H. P. F. (2000) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2000.tb03042.x · Cited by 20
Judging meaning improves function in the aging brain
Park, D. C. (2002) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(02)01912-5 · Cited by 20
“LIKE WAKING UP FROM A DREAM”: MINDFULNESS TRAINING FOR OLDER PEOPLE WITH ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION
SMITH, A. (2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012088519-0/50010-1 · Cited by 20
Age-related cognitive decline and navigation in electronic environments
Sjölinder, M. (2006) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 21
The impact of processing speed training on working memory in old adults.
Peng, H., Wen, J., Wang, D., & Gao, Y. (2012) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-012-9142-6 · Cited by 19
“The latter view can often be supported in cross-sectional studies (Finkel et al. 2007; Salthouse 1996, 2001; Salthouse and Ferrer-Caja 2003), but not in longitudinal studies (Zimprich 2002; Zimprich and Martin 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialCristi‐Montero, C., Hernández-Jaña, S., Zavala-Crichton, J. P., Tremblay, M. S., Ortega, F. B., Feter, N., Mota, J. A. P. S., Aguilar-Farías, N., Ferrari, G., Sadarangani, K. P., et al. (2023) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2023.100561 · Cited by 20
Mahmood, A., Rehman, N., Huang, X., & Zamani, N. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02767-0 · Cited by 17
“The positive impact of SMART therapy on cognitive abilities aligns with the processing speed theory of Salthouse, 1996 and the intelligence and education framework of Deary & Johnson, emphasizing the importance of cognitive enhancement for educational success [32, 50].”
Cognitive Profile Difference Between Allen Cognitive Levels 4 and 5 in Schizophrenia
Su, C., Tsai, P.-C., Su, W., Tang, T., & Tsai, A. Y. (2011) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2011.000711 · Cited by 19
“execution) within a specified time limit (Bachman et al., 2010; Salthouse, 1996).”
Hage, R., Buisseret, F., Pitance, L., Brismée, J., Detrembleur, C., & Dierick, F. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0219515 · Cited by 19
Sabhlok, A., Malanchini, M., Engelhardt, L. E., Madole, J. W., Tucker–Drob, E. M., & Harden, K. P. (2021) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13168 · Cited by 21
Kurthen, I., Meyer, M. E., Schlesewsky, M., & Bornkessel‐Schlesewsky, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.573513 · Cited by 22
“Other candidate mechanisms include cognitive abilities like processing speed (Salthouse, 1996), working memory (DeDe & Flax, 2016; Payne et al., 2014), inhibitory processes (Hasher & Zacks, 1988), and verbal fluency, which is thought to moderate the extent to which older adults use predictive…”
BackgroundHarel-Arbeli, T., Wingfield, A., Palgi, Y., & Ben-David, B. M. (2021) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00142 · Cited by 17
“This would suggest that older adults’ slower offline touch responses were due to motoric slowing, rather than an effect of postulated generalized cognitive slowing (Cerella, 1990; Cerella & Hale, 1994; Salthouse, 1985, 1996).”
BackgroundBhattacharyya, K. K., Hueluer, G., Meng, H., & Hyer, K. (2021) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102751 · Cited by 20
Processing speed and working memory are predicted by components of successful aging: a HUNT study
Bosnes, I., Bosnes, O., Stordal, E., Nordahl, H. M., Myklebust, T. Å., & Almkvist, O. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00718-7 · Cited by 21
“There was, as expected, a negative effect of age on processing speed [53].”
BackgroundFong, M. C., Ma, M. K.-H., Chui, Y.-T., Law, T. S. T., Hui, N. Y., Au, A. M. L., & Wang, W. Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2022.787413 · Cited by 22
“In addition to processing speed, which is known to be a general deciding factor of the performance of older adults across domains (Salthouse, 1996), the in-class Ita-to-Can was associated with faster picture naming latency and better Raven’s SPM.”
BackgroundBecker, M., & Cabeza, R. E. L. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01773-5 · Cited by 23
“However, age (ß = .07, CI = [.02–.11]) positively predicted solution time, consistent with age-related slowing (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundResultWu, Z., Woods, R. L., Chong, T. T. ‐., Orchard, S. G., Shah, R. C., Wolfe, R. S., Storey, E., Sheets, K. M., Murray, A. M., McNeil, J. J., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.917254 · Cited by 22
“Psychomotor speed may be a central marker of cognitive aging, as it is essential for successful execution of various mental activities (40).”
BackgroundLópez Pérez, D., Bokde, A. L. W., & Kerskens, C. M. (2023) · The European Physical Journal Special Topics · doi:10.1140/epjs/s11734-022-00696-2 · Cited by 20
Study on the Differences of Icon Cognition of Graphical Interface for Age-Friendly Design
Liu, H., Wang, W., Liu, Y., Song, F., Wang, S., & Guo, H. (2022) · Journal of Gerontological Social Work · doi:10.1080/01634372.2022.2139319 · Cited by 21
“Processing speed theory suggests that slowed processing speed is one of the main causes of cognitive decline in old age (Light & Salthouse, 1988; Lindenberger et al., 1993; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundJust write it down: Similarity in the benefit from cognitive offloading in young and older adults
Burnett, L. K., & Richmond, L. L. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01413-7 · Cited by 22
“…may choose to use memory tasks with more complex stimuli that are difficult to rehearse (Forsberg et al., 2019), or tasks that require more self-initiated (Craik & Mcdowd, 1987) and/or more resource-intensive processing (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialGollan, T. H., Garcia, D. L., Stasenko, A., Murillo, M., Kim, C. H., Galasko, D. R., & Salmon, D. P. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13381 · Cited by 19
“However, age-related slowing 53,54 mighthaveoffsetage-relatedgainsinsemanticknowledge and naming ability.”
Switching between hands in a serial reaction time task: a comparison between young and old adults
Hoff, M., Trapp, S., Kaminski, E., Sehm, B., Steele, C. J., Villringer, A., & Ragert, P. (2015) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00176 · Cited by 18
“, 2014), that is often associated with generally slower movements (Morgan et al., 1994; Salthouse, 1996; Cuypers et al., 2013).”
BackgroundBorella, E., Ludwig, C., Fagot, D., & de Ribaupierre, A. (2011) · Archives of gerontology and geriatrics (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2010.11.005 · Cited by 22
Autofahren im Alter - eine Literaturanalyse
Kaiser, H. J., & Oswald, W. D. (2000) · Zeitschrift für Gerontopsychologie & -psychiatrie · doi:10.1024//1011-6877.13.34.131 · Cited by 20
Zelinski, E. M., Peters, K. D., Hindin, S. B., Petway, K. T., & Kennison, R. F. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00617 · Cited by 22
“Processing speed has long been characterized as a cognitive primitive (e.g., Salthouse, 1996) that underlies age related performance declines in many cognitive tasks, including memory.”
BackgroundKrestar, M. L., Looman, W. J., Powers, S. M., Dawson, N. T., & Judge, K. S. (2012) · Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics · doi:10.1525/jer.2012.7.2.70 · Cited by 19
“Although a large amount of research has compared older and younger adults to demonstrate the effects of normal cognitive aging (e.g., Salthouse, 1996), little research has addressed ways to format surveys for memory-impaired older adults that will facilitate participation in survey research in this…”
BackgroundCombining Multiple Measures into a Single Figure of Merit
Chignell, M., Tong, T., Mizobuchi, S., Delange, T., Ho, W., & Walmsley, W. (2015) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2015.10.004 · Cited by 18
Inattentional blindness in older adults: Effects of attentional set and to-be-ignored distractors
Horwood, S., & Beanland, V. (2016) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-015-1057-4 · Cited by 23
“A comprehensive review is beyond the scope of the present article; however, some prominent theories pertain to processing speed (Salthouse, 1996), limited attentional capacity (Craik & Byrd, 1982; Kahneman, 1973), and inhibitory deficits (Connelly, Hasher, & Zacks, 1991; Lustig, Hasher,”
BackgroundCross-age effect in recognition performance and memory monitoring for faces.
Bryce, M. S., & Dodson, C. S. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0030213 · Cited by 19
Romani, C., MacDonald, A., Felice, S. D., & Palermo, L. (2017) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2017.1320278 · Cited by 21
“In turn, slowed processing will cause impairments in higher functions involving executive control because not all of the relevant information needed to complete a cognitive operation will be available when required (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialDaily Stress Processes as Contributors to and Targets for Promoting Cognitive Health in Later Life
Stawski, R. S., Cerino, E. S., Witzel, D. D., & MacDonald, S. W. S. (2018) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000643 · Cited by 21
Aging and Sex Influence Cortical Auditory-Motor Integration for Speech Control
Li, J., Hu, H., Chen, N., Jones, J. A., Wu, D., Liu, P., & Liu, H. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00749 · Cited by 19
“Considering that advanced age is characterized by deficits of cognitive functions such as working memory and executive control (Salthouse, 1996; Park et al., 2002) and inhibitory control is a frontally mediated cognitive function to suppress reflex-like or inappropriate behavioral responses (Burle…”
BackgroundCole, R. C., Hazeltine, E., Weng, T. B., Wharff, C. J., DuBose, L. E., Schmid, P. G., Sigurðsson, G., Magnotta, V. A., Pierce, G. L., & Voss, M. W. (2019) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.23151 · Cited by 18
“Participants completed a paper-and-pencil pattern and letter comparison task (Salthouse, 1996).”
MethodLong-term cognitive trajectory and activities of daily living in healthy aging
Bezdíček, O., Červenková, M., Georgi, H. S., Schmand, B. A., Hladká, A., Rulseh, A. M., & Kopeček, M. (2020) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2020.1745895 · Cited by 20
“…activities of daily living (IADL) and that these are associated with their cognitive functioning, such as speed of processing, and that these also show relations to their brain morphology (Bezdicek et al., 2016; Burton et al., 2006; Fields et al., 2010; Njegovan et al., 2001; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundA Cross-Linguistic Study of Individual Differences in Speech Planning
Swets, B., Fuchs, S. I., Krivokapić, J., & Petrone, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655516 · Cited by 19
“To measure this, we used the letter comparison task from Salthouse (1996), in which participants made a series of judgments regarding the similarity of sets of letters.”
MethodSpeech Recognition as a Function of Age and Listening Experience in Adult Cochlear Implant Users
Murr, A. T., Canfarotta, M. W., O’Connell, B. P., Buss, E., King, E. R., Bucker, A. L., Dillon, S. A., Rooth, M. A., Dedmon, M. M., Brown, K. D., et al. (2021) · The Laryngoscope · doi:10.1002/lary.29663 · Cited by 21
“These agerelated deficits could be attributed to either reduced ability to perceptually segregate speech(54,55) or more global limitations in central processing resources with advanced age.(56) These findings may also represent degenerative changes in temporal auditory processing, when considering that CI recipients c…”
BackgroundMayhew, S. D., Coleman, S. C., Mullinger, K. J., & Can, C. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119081 · Cited by 18
Age-Related Slowing in Online Samples
Bui, D. C., Myerson, J., & Hale, S. (2015) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-015-0135-2 · Cited by 18
Urry, K., Burns, N. R., & Baetu, I. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01158 · Cited by 19
“Given that severe age-related decline in PS is a robust finding (Salthouse, 1996), reports of preserved SRTT performance with age are inconsistent.”
BackgroundResultDoes Looking at the Positive Mean Feeling Good? Age and Individual Differences Matter
Isaacowitz, D. M., & Noh, S. R. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00374.x · Cited by 19
Reaction time and intelligence: Comparing associations based on two response modes
Nissan, J. J., Liewald, D. C. M., & Deary, I. J. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.08.002 · Cited by 19
“In addition, reaction times are often used as an index of processing speed, which is seen by some as a fundamental factor in the age-related decline in various cognitive functions (Madden, 2001; Salthouse, 1996).”
MethodHankee, L. D., Preis, S. R., Beiser, A., Devine, S., Liu, Y., Seshadri, S. S., Wolf, P. A., & Au, R. (2013) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2013.839029 · Cited by 19
“Through the normal aging process, declines are evident in information processing efficiency (Salthouse, 1996), working memory (Hasher, Lustin, & Zacks, 2007), and various tasks requiring executive functions (e.g., inhibitory control [Chao & Knight, 1997]; planning [Sanders & Schmitter-Edgecombe,…”
BackgroundAnderson, E. J., de Jager, C. A., & Iversen, S. D. (2006) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390591001016 · Cited by 19
“A key difference between memory loss in old age and early Alzheimer's disease is that in old age the loss of memory is proportional to the losses in other cognitive domains, such as language, praxis and general intelligence, ( Salthouse, 1993 ; 1996 ), whilst in Alzheimer's disease the loss of memory is disproportiona…”
BackgroundMultivariate Longitudinal Modeling of Cognitive Aging
Robitaille, A., Terrera, G. M., Piccinin, A. M., Johansson, B. E. A., & Hofer, S. M. (2012) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000051 · Cited by 17
“The demonstration adresses the processing speed hypothesis which suggests that age-related changes in cognitive performance are accounted for by age-related changes in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundTroche, S. J., Wagner, F. L., Voelke, A. E., Roebers, C. M., & Rammsayer, T. H. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.02.009 · Cited by 17
Ageing effects on word production processes: an ERP topographic analysis
Valente, A., & Laganaro, M. (2015) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2015.1059950 · Cited by 19
“Within this approach, general slowing theories assume a generalised slowing across all processing stages indiscriminately, including sensory and cognitive slowing (e.g. Myerson, Hale, Wagstaff, Poon, & Smith, 1990; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundThe role of age and inhibitory efficiency in working memory processing and storage components
Blair, M., Vadaga, K. K., Shuchat, J., & Li, K. (2010) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2010.540670 · Cited by 19
Unilateral and bilateral hearing aids, spatial release from masking and auditory acclimatization
Dawes, P., Munro, K. J., Kalluri, S., et al. (2013) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.4807783 · Cited by 19
“Speed of processing was also tested, and is intended as a general measure of cognitive integrity; associations between speed of processing and other cognitive abilities are so consistent that some investigators have suggested that cognitive declines with aging are due fundamentally to declines in processing speed (Sal…”
BackgroundBrydges, C. R., Ozolnieks, K. L., & Roberts, G. (2015) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12096 · Cited by 23
“, 2006; Kyllonen & Christal, 1990), processing speed and gF (Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Salthouse, 1996; Sheppard & Vernon, 2008), and working memory and processing speed (Fisk & Warr, 1996; Salthouse, 1992; Schmiedek, Oberauer, Wilhelm, S€ uß, & Wittmann, 2007; Wilhelm & Oberauer, 2006).”
Janczyk, M., Mittelstädt, P., & Wienrich’s, C. (2018) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2017.1422459 · Cited by 18
“While the decline of some cognitive functions can be explained by a general slowing of processing speed (e.g., Salthouse, 1996), other functions appear to require additional processing steps in older adults.”
BackgroundHering, A., Kliegel, M., Bisiacchi, P. S., & Cona, G. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00114 · Cited by 19
Der, G., & Deary, I. J. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.05.005 · Cited by 17
“Alternatively, the results are also compatible with theories that stress the fundamental role of information processing speed, indexed by RT, both in general mental ability (Jensen, 1982) and in cognitive ageing (Salthouse, 1996).”
Focused and Sustained Attention
Cohen, R. A. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-72639-7_6 · Cited by 20
Individual differences and reliability of paired associates learning in younger and older adults.
Rast, P., & Zimprich, D. (2009) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0016138 · Cited by 18
Heading detection with simulated visual field defects
Cornelissen, F. W., & van den Dobbelsteen, J. J. (1999) · Visual Impairment Research · doi:10.1076/vimr.1.2.71.4412 · Cited by 19
Elias, J. W., & Wagster, M. V. (2007) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/62.special_issue_1.5 · Cited by 19
Differential age effects for case and hue mixing in visual word recognition.
Allen, P. A., Smith, A. F., Groth, K. E., Pickle, J. L., Grabbe, J. W., & Madden, D. J. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.622 · Cited by 20
“, Allen & Madden, 1989; Allen, Madden, & Crozier, 1991; Spieler & Balota, 2000); it is plausible that age-related slowing (Cerella, 1985; Madden, 2001; Salthouse, 1996) and increases in neural noise (Allen, Kaufman, Smith, & Propper, 1998a, 1998b; Welford, 1958) might be offset by processing larger units.”
Pollock, J., & Allen, P. A. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118521373.wbeaa236 · Cited by 19
Milburn, E. A., Dickey, M. W., Warren, T. C., & Hayes, R. A. (2021) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1962791 · Cited by 18
“…predictive processing is indeed reduced (DeLong et al., 2012; Federmeier & Kutas, 2005; Wlotko et al., 2010) or their processing generally slowed (Salthouse, 1996), then using tasks in which bottom-up information quickly confirms the identity of the predicted item would likely obscure any…”
BackgroundDifferentiating Mild Cognitive Impairment and Cognitive Changes of Normal Aging
Mosti, C. B., Rog, L. A., & Fink, J. W. (2019) · Clinical handbooks in neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93497-6_28 · Cited by 18
Kunishige, M., Miyaguchi, H., Fukuda, H., Iida, T., Kawabata, N., & Ishizuki, C. (2020) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-020-00227-9 · Cited by 18
Efficient selection between hierarchical cognitive models: Cross-validation with variational Bayes.
Dao, V. H., Gunawan, D., Tran, M., Kohn, R., Hawkins, G. E., & Brown, S. D. (2022) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000458 · Cited by 23
“For many decades, age-related slowing was attributed to a decrease in the rate of information processing (the famous “generalized slowdown” hypothesis; Salthouse, 1996).”
Sentence Recall in Latent and Anomic Aphasia: An Exploratory Study of Semantics and Syntax
Salis, C., Martin, N., & Reinert, L. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11020230 · Cited by 18
“Influenced by processing speed theory [60], DeDe and Salis [15] proposed that latent aphasia is characterized by a faulty simultaneity mechanism—that is, an inability to simultaneously plan and execute multiple linguistic and other cognitive operations [60].”
MethodElverman, K. H., Paitel, E. R., Figueroa, C. M., McKindles, R. J., & Nielson, K. A. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201559 · Cited by 20
“, [45, 67]), supporting both the processing speed hypothesis of aging [68] and compensatory theories of aging that show increased activation, often with a frontal shift and reduced neural activity in other task relevant areas [35–39, 45, 67].”
Kleineidam, L., Stark, M., Riedel-Heller, S. G., Pabst, A., Schmiedek, F., Streit, F., Rietschel, M., Klinger-König, J., Grabe, H. J., Erhardt, A., et al. (2022) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.2011408 · Cited by 19
“The cross-sectional age differences will, in part, reflect age-related intra-individual cognitive changes; for example, a lower processing speed in older age (Salthouse 1996), or increasing levels of brain pathology.”
BackgroundZainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2022) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.19 · Cited by 16
“Simultaneously, what factors may account for decreases in processing speed and verbal WM preceding and predicting a decline in LS? Findings are concordant with theorists who propose the importance of processing speed [102,103] and WM [104] resources to fulfill goals and tasks to create a sense of gratification across…”
ResultDiabetes mellitus associated neurovascular lesions in the retina and brain: A review
Sinclair, S. H., Miller, E. S., Talekar, K. S., & Schwartz, S. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Ophthalmology · doi:10.3389/fopht.2022.1012804 · Cited by 18
Pak, K., Kooij, T. A. M., de Lange, A. H., den Heuvel, S. V., & van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104012 · Cited by 28
Audio-visual speech experience with age influences perceived audio-visual asynchrony in speech.
Alm, M., & Behne, D. M. (2013) · Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.4820798 · Cited by 20
Age and response bias: Evidence from the strength-based mirror effect
Criss, A. H., Aue, W. R., & Kılıç, A. (2014) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2013.874037 · Cited by 18
“…criterion if they are concerned that their encoding of the list was insufficient due to a general processing deficit (e.g., processingspeed theory; Salthouse, 1996) or if they are concerned about insufficient item-to-list context binding (e.g., associative deficit hypothesis; Naveh-Benjamin,…”
BackgroundInfluentialBinding in working memory and frontal lobe in normal aging: is there any similarity with autism?
Lecouvey, G., Quinette, P., Kalpouzos, G., Guillery‐Girard, B., Bejanin, A., Gonneaud, J., Abbas, A., Viader, F., Eustache, F., & Desgranges, B. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00090 · Cited by 18
“They were also slower than the young adults at rejecting lures in the combination condition, either in an attempt to improve their accuracy, or because of an age-related processing speed decrement which has been suggested to account for some of the age-related differences reported in measures of cognition (Salthouse,…”
InfluentialRecognition and Control of the Progression of Age-Related Hearing Loss
Ren, H., Ren, J., & Liu, W. (2013) · Rejuvenation Research · doi:10.1089/rej.2013.1435 · Cited by 18
“The perceptual and cognitive declines resulting from ARHL cannot be explained solely by a dysfunction of peripheral sensory organs, and they frequently translate to slowed perceptual processing and difficulty in accurately identifying stimuli.(146) A recent study on age-related cortical processing deficits in the prim…”
BackgroundReliability of negative BOLD in ipsilateral sensorimotor areas during unimanual task activity
McGregor, K., Sudhyadhom, A., Nocera, J. R., Seff, A., Crosson, B., & Butler, A. J. (2014) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-014-9302-3 · Cited by 18
“While it has long been known that sedentary aging results in decreased motor performance (McGregor et al. 2009; Salthouse 1996), the neural mechanisms of decline are not well understood.”
BackgroundTime perception in children treated for a cerebellar medulloblastoma
Droit‐Volet, S., Zélanti, P. S., Dellatolas, G., Kieffer, V., Massioui, N. E., Brown, B. L., Doyère, V., Provasi, J., & Grill, J. (2012) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.09.006 · Cited by 24
Les faux souvenirs dans le vieillissement normal : données empiriques et modèles théoriques
Taconnat, L., & Rémy, P. (2006) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.4074/s0003503306003071 · Cited by 18
Mata, R., & von Helversen, B. (2015) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12139 · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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