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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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“Among the latter, processing speed plays a particularly critical role: age-related slowing in the rate at which information is perceived, integrated, and transformed into motor output can significantly reduce handwriting fluency, timing, and coordination (Salthouse, 1996; Demaree et al., 1999).”
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“This prediction also reflects the cognitive decline in older adults [8].”
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“27 Intellectual functioning was treated separately because the included studies operationalized ‘IQ’ heterogeneously (e.g. vocabulary, non-verbal matrices, composite indices), and IQ in CP does not uniformly reflect global ability because of modality-specific motor, language, or visual factors.”
Villar‐Rodríguez, E., Baena-Pérez, M., Cano-Melle, C., et al. (2026) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.1240 · Cited by 1
“Given the decline of processing speed due to aging— and the potential impact of this on other cognitive domains such as reading ( Salthouse, 1996)— we considered it appropriate to control for its effect in these analyses.”
Playback speed and learning: effects on objective comprehension and perceived clarity
Orejuela, A. R., Espinal, E. A., & Osorio-Andrade, C. F. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1790320 · Cited by 1
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“They minimize working memory, associative learning, and executive demands, making them the most direct probe of the information-accrual bottleneck [23,24].”
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“For example, the general slowing theory [7] has been proposed to explain the decreased performance in cognitive and motor tasks by assuming a general slowing of executive functions [7, 8] and controlled information processing [9, 10].”
Fang, Z., Zhao, Z., & Cao, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1875038 · Cited by 1
“The processing speed theory of cognitive aging further suggests that age-related slowing in cognitive operations may contribute to broader difficulties in complex information-processing tasks (8).”
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Dyer, R. K., Rossell, S. L., Phillipou, A., Cropley, V., Karantonis, J. A., Furlong, L. S., Ringin, E., Caruana, G. F., Thomas, E. H. X., Gurvich, C., et al. (2026) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2026.117309 · Cited by 1
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Millán, P. R., & Ruiz, B. G. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-84-458-2066-7.00021-5 · Cited by 1
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“For example, studies with both adults and children have shown that the greatest attenuation of agerelated variance in working memory occurs after controlling for processing speed (e.g., Fry & Hale, 1996; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAschersleben, G., Arning, K., & Müsseler, J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-35057-3_12 · Cited by 1
“a slowing in stimulus detection, decision making, response selection, and response execution (Salthouse 1996).”
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Sentence comprehension following moderate closed head injury in adults
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“future science group essentially states that processing speed is the primary mediator of cognitive aging [23–25].”
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Effects of Age and Task Characteristics on Continuous Motor Tracking Performance
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“Age-related limitations of a broad spectrum of cognitive functions have been attributed, in part, to slowing of processing speed within the nervous system (Salthouse, 1996).”
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Age and Gender Differences in Force Control Capabilities by Force Control Phase
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An exploratory study of auditory extinction in ageing: Now you hear it, now you don't
Marshall, R. S., García-Barrera, M. A., & Yanosky, D. J. (2008) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687030701800776 · Cited by 1
“…hypothesis argued by certain researchers is that attention deficits in ageing are due to an inherent limit in attentional capacity or processing resources (Kahneman, 1973) attributed to a generalised decreased speed of performing mental operations (Birren, 1965; Park, 1999; Salthouse, 1991, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialA "Conceptual Nervous System" for multiple sclerosis.
Haase, V. G., Gonzaga, D. D. M., Pinheiro‐Chagas, P., & Lana–Peixoto, M. A. (2010) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.3922/j.psns.2010.2.006 · Cited by 1
“In a more detailed review, Salthouse (1996) showed that IPS accounted for more than 90% of the variance in normal cognitive aging.”
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Tech Effect and Generational Age Implications on Jury Verdicts
Lobo, J. (2015) · Forensic Research & Criminology International Journal · doi:10.15406/frcij.2015.01.00016 · Cited by 1
“This would be important as questions have arisen concerning the ability of older jurors to understand and evaluate complex trials [40].”
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Lifespan multilingual education, a long-term investment
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“2002), reduced information processing speed (Cerella 1985; Eckert et al. 2010; Salthouse 1996) and increased variability (Morse 1993).”
BackgroundTan, H. Y., & Weinberger, D. R. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195373035.003.0013 · Cited by 1
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“One of the most common findings in the literature on aging is that older adults need more time to process and respond to information [12, 13].”
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“The theory of speed processes [24] and the theory of prefrontal executive control [29] are commonly encountered for interpreting neurophysiological correlates of changes in cognitive functions during aging.”
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“…阿尔兹海默症; 功能核磁共振 分类号 B849:C91; B845 1 引言 21 世纪被称为“百岁老人” (Centenarians) 纪 元。随着医疗技术的不断发展和养老卫生体系的 日益完善, 发达国家 2000年之后出生的婴儿大部 分寿命将超过 100岁(Vaupel, 2010)。随着人口寿 命不断延长, 工作年限的增加将是维持现有人口 红利的途径之一, 这就需要个体在年老化过程中 面对生活中的不确定性依然能够做出正确有效的 决策。 决策根据不同归类条件具有不同的分类形式, 常出现于老化研究的分类主要是依据概率可知性 划分的风险决策和模糊决策(Brand, Labudda, &…”
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“However, declines in gF are accompanied by age-related slowing (e.g., Salthouse & Meinz, 1995; Salthouse, 1996), and statistically controlling for processing speeds has been shown to attenuate agerelated differences on goal maintenance tasks (Fisk & Warr, 1996).”
Examining theories of cognitive ageing using the false memory paradigm
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“prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, posterior parietal cortex, and anterior insula (Nelson, Reuter-Lorenz, Sylvester, Jonides, & Smith, 2003; Sylvester et al., 2003; Wager et al., 2005). Neuroimaging data have also shown distinct areas of activation for the individual functions of inhibition. For example, Sylve…”
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Aging and Executive Control in Task Switching
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“Another interesting aspect of aging literature is that many models of cognitive aging suggest that a general slowing factor (Cerella, 1985; Salthouse, 1996) can explain age-related slowing over the great majority of tasks and processes.”
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“Several investigations [153, 154, 175] observe the general slowing of information-processing speed.”
BackgroundNagaraj, H., Devi, N., & Benoy, J. J. (2021) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2020.1868394 · Cited by 1
“As per the Processing-Speed Theory (Salthouse, 1996), “cognitive performance is degraded when processing is slow because relevant operations cannot be successfully executed and because the products of early processing may no longer be available when later processing is complete.””
MethodMotivation und Lernen im Alter
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“These tests deals with harnessing of fluid cognition, which therefore makes it a crucial marker of cognitive functions, age related variations and decline of cognitive performances [5].”
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“, 2015) or the older adults aiming to minimize errors at the cost of being slower (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundResultComponent processes in task switching: cue switch costs are dependent on a mixed block of trials
LaPlume, A., Reimers, S., & Wiseheart, M. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2022.2089153 · Cited by 1
“Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2022.2089153. switch cost) thus parses a task change from baseline processes required for speeded response time tasks that are not specific to switching (termed processing speed; Salthouse, 1996, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialAge-related Differences in Word Recognition Tasks according to Visual Interference and Noun Imagery
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“또한 처리가 완료되었을 때는 이미 이전에 처리되었던 작업을 더 이상 사용할 수 없기 때문에 작업들을 동시적으로 처리하는 데 어려움을 보인다(Salthouse, 1996).”
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“Task experience did not have a clear or significant effect on median RT since most subjects had similar RTs when comparing across the first and last three sessions.”
InfluentialThe Relationship Between Older Adults’ Subjective Age and Perceived Effort on Cognitive Tasks
Karaca, M., Geraci, L. D., Tirso, R., & Aube, J. (2023) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2022.2145163 · Cited by 1
“Given that the test was self-paced, it is possible that older adults prioritized accuracy over speed more so than younger while completing cognitive tasks, suggesting a speed-accuracy trade-off (Hertzog et al., 1993; Salthouse, 1979, 1996) that may mask any potential age difference on this task.”
BackgroundCocktail-party listening and cognitive abilities show strong pleiotropy
Mathias, S. R., Knowles, E. E. M., Mollon, J., Rodrigue, A., Woolsey, M. K., Hernandez, A. M., Garret, A. S., Fox, P. T., Olvera, R. L., Peralta, J. M., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1071766 · Cited by 1
“Processing speed is more susceptible to age-related decline than any other cognitive domain (64), raising the possibility that the commonly observed age-related increases in SRTs (8, 65) could be tied to older listeners’ declining processing speed.”
BackgroundYouth pre-pandemic executive function relates to year one COVID-19 difficulties
Aizza, A., Porter, B. M., & Church, J. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1033282 · Cited by 2
“Some researchers argue that it is a separate, more primitive cognitive process that aids or hinders the performance of EF, (Salthouse, 1996), while others consider it an additional EF domain (e.g., Brown et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRole of light walking pace on cognition: Findings from the Maine-Syracuse Longitudinal Study
Ahmed, F. S., Guenther, B. A., Thompson, J. L., Lagerstrom, L., & Robbins, M. A. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2023.2228952 · Cited by 1
“…and tracking (Trail Making Test, part A; Symbol Search), visual-psycho-motor speed (Digit Symbol Substitution), as well as a cognitive set-shifting task that also requires visual scanning and tracking (Trail Making Test, part B; Lezak et al., 2004; Reitan, 1958; Salthouse, 1996; Wechsler, 1955).”
Cognitive Training and Rehabilitation in Aging
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“Moreover, studies suggest that the cognitive decline associated with aging is linked to a single mechanism of generalized slowing (Salthouse, 1996).”
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“Processing speed is considered a fundamental component of cognitive ability and is often considered the baseline for higher-order cognitive processes such as memory and executive function 24,45 .”
BackgroundKronenberger, W. G., Castellanos, I., & Pisoni, D. B. (2024) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2024.109069 · Cited by 1
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The celebrity effect on gaze following in older and young adults
Chen, A., Yuan, Z., Zhou, S., Yu, Q., Zhang, F., & Dong, B. (2024) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-024-00319-w · Cited by 1
“…connection of the attention network, older adults have fewer cognitive resources (Lien et al., (Lien et al. 2011)); their speed of processing information is slower (Bennett et al., (Bennett et al. 2004); Salthouse, (Salthouse 1996)); and also, the cognitive control flexibility is decreasing.”
BackgroundAging of lexical access in Chinese spoken word production: A picture-word interference study
Cui, Y., Wang, X., & Zhang, Q. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241292020 · Cited by 1
“…scripts, studies using auditory distractors in the PWI suggest that orthographic information is automatically activated during speech production in English speakers (Damian & Bowers, 2003; Damian & Martin, 1999; Osborne et al., 2004; Starreveld & La Heij, 1995, 1996; Schriefers et al., 1990).”
InfluentialReineberg, A. E., Eckstrand, K., & Flatt, J. D. (2024) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2024.2414478 · Cited by 1
“We also use a speed (S) factor as a measure of simple processing speed for tests of specificity because of the known relationship between processing speed and other measures of cognition (Salthouse, 1996).”
M-MAT Meta: Treatment of Self-Awareness and Language for Individuals With Severe Wernicke's Aphasia
Wadams, A., & Mozeiko, J. L. (2024) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-23-00346 · Cited by 1
Li, Y., Guo, S., Chen, J., Feng, L., Bian, H., Chen, Y., Yang, H., & Lü, J. (2025) · Brain-Apparatus Communication A Journal of Bacomics · doi:10.1080/27706710.2025.2465539 · Cited by 1
Effects of aging on word position encoding in Chinese reading
Liu, Z., Li, Y., & Wang, J. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02750-9 · Cited by 1
“This decline has been attributed to multiple cognitive factors, including decreased processing speed and reduced working memory capacity [20, 23].”
Rajagopalan, J., & Jacob, A. M. (2025) · Studies in systems, decision and control · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-86712-5_57 · Cited by 1
Baenziger, J. (2013) · Iowa State University Digital Repository (Iowa State University) · Cited by 1
Langevin, S., Dommès, A., Cavallo, V., et al. (2011) · International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design (Driving Assessment Conference) · doi:10.17077/drivingassessment.1426 · Cited by 1
Kirchner, C., Völker, I., & Bock, O. L. (2014) · International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · Cited by 1
The Influence of Word Frequency and Aging on Lexical Access
Cohen‐Shikora, E. R. (2015) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k7z036cg · Cited by 1
“There are a number of domains which show age-related breakdowns, including processing speed (Salthouse, 1996), sensation and perception (Fozard & Gordon-Salant, 2001), 3 and attentional control (Kramer & Kray, 2006).”
BackgroundSELF-REGULATION IN OLDER ADULTS: THE PRIORITIZATION OF EMOTION REGULATION
Evans, D. R. (2014) · Cited by 1
The Use of Virtual Reality to Train Older Adults in Processing of Spatial Information
Lin, D.-Y. M., & Yang, P.-Y. D. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73281-5_48 · Cited by 1
“61), the differences were only due to a chance result (F[2,56] = 1.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialQuality of Life and Affect across the Adult Lifespan
Brown, P. J. (2009) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k7zg6qcn · Cited by 1
“The older a participant was, the slower the presentation of the numbers was, consistent with past research citing increased slowing in processing speed as people age (Cerella, 1985; Salthouse, 1996).”
ResultEFECTOS DEL ENVEJECIMIENTO EN LOS PROCESOS DE COMPRENSIÓN Y PRODUCCIÓN DEL LENGUAJE
Véliz, M. (2015) · Paideia/Paideia (Concepción. En línea) · Cited by 1
Retaining Experienced Hospital Administrators: A Neglected Topic in Healthcare
Anjum, J., & Bolon, D. (2013) · Hospital Topics · doi:10.1080/00185868.2013.848161 · Cited by 1
“A common theme that can be drawn from these models is that there is a general age-related slowing of cognitive operations, resulting in impairment of some cognitive and linguistic functions, while others may be selectively spared (Bowlby 1993; Burke and Shafto 2008; Salthouse 1996).”
BackgroundWhy does life speed up? The impact of cognitive aging
Bays, R. B. (2010) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.390 · Cited by 1
Alescio-Lautier, B., Herrera, C., & Paban, V. (2012) · Les démences au croisement des non-savoirs · doi:10.3917/ehesp.arfeu.2012.01.0167
Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition: A Journal on Normal and Dysfunctional
Bugaïska, A., & Thibaut, J. (2014) · Cited by 1
Kognitive Reserve: Lernen im Alter
Mayorova, E., & Meyer, M. E. (2014) · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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