Cited by 5,902Aging and Gerontology ResearchCognitive Abilities and TestingCognitive Functions and Memory

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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition

Salthouse, Timothy A.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403

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Abstract

Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.

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“In addition, it is unlikely that our observed age deficits in learning reflect general slowing of the aging cognitive processing system (Salthouse, 1996), whereby the products of early processing stages are lost before later processing is complete.”
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“In that, it has been suggesting as a foundation for the competence of cognitive abilities and as influence the quality of processing, they are ageing [5-8].”
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Kurkela, K. A., Carpenter, C. M., Babu, H. J., Chamberlain, J. D., Allen, C. M., & Dennis, N. A. (2021) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1942427 · Cited by 1
“This could be problematic for older adults, as one of the foremost theories of cognitive aging posits that age-related decline in cognitive processing is due to age-related slowing of mental operations (Salthouse, 1996).”
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“As often reported in the aging literature [ 50 ], we obtained no reliable age differences in a subtest of semantical knowledge, but significant differences in perceptual speed of processing, indicating the representativity of the younger and older subsample (for details, see [28]).”
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Memória pictórica e inteligência: duas evidências de validade
Rueda, F. J. M., Cecílio‐Fernandes, D., & Sisto, F. F. (2008) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · doi:10.12957/epp.2008.10562 · Cited by 2
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Ambert-Dahan, E., Gatignol, P., Lombaert, M.-C., et al. (2013) · Revue Neurologique · doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2013.01.589 · Cited by 2
“…est ainsi souvent associée à une baisse de capacités cognitives telles que l’attention (Craik, Byrd, 1982), la mémoire de travail (Hedden, Gabrieli, 2004) et la vitesse de traitement (Salthouse, 1996) et à un affaiblissement des traces mnésiques (McCoy et al., 2005 ; Surprenant, 2007).”
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Appartenance syndicale et âgisme : approche comparée en Europe
Barel, Y., & Frémeaux, S. (2013) · Management international · doi:10.7202/1015812ar · Cited by 2
Comprehension of complex instructions deteriorates with age and vascular morbidity
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“A general slowing of perceptual and cognitive operations is an essential feature of the aging process (Salthouse 1996).”
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Interplay of Cognitive Efficiency, Cognitive Ability and Motivation
Piks, B. (2014) · Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems · doi:10.7906/indecs.12.4.3 · Cited by 2
“cognitive ability, cognitive decline, motivational reserve, closeness, proverb interpretation task”
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Using Delboeuf's illusion to improve point and click performance for older adults
Hollinworth, N., Hwang, F., & Field, D. T. (2013) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/2468356.2468593 · Cited by 2
“Background Age-related changes in movement control can affect point and click performance using a device such as a mouse, and may be related to declines in coordination and spatial ability [16].”
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Chuang, K.-H., Jeng, M., Chun-Chia, H., Doong, J., Lin, C., & Lai, C. (2014) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/22.24.pms.119c10z8 · Cited by 3
“-old taxi drivers in the present study supported the slowing-with-age phenomenon ( Salthouse, 1996 ).”
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“Een tweede, meer recente trend gaat namelijk uit van een algemene vertraging van het cognitieve systeem (Salthouse, 1996).”
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Intact interference and inhibitory functions in participants with bipolar disorder and their first-degree relatives
Vierck, E. (2015) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2015.1081157 · Cited by 2
“One potential reason for this is that the speed with which information is processed may impact on performance in many cognitive tasks as slow processing may limit successful execution or reduce access to timelimited information (Salthouse, 1996).”
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“Understanding task model and, even it is understood, translating the model into the sequential activities is usually problematic for older users [18], since information processing ability declines through the years [ 19 ].”
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“…study is to investigate the influence of fluid intelligence (Conway, Cowan, Bunting, Therriault, & Minkoff, 2002; Kyllonen & Christal, 1990), inhibitory control (Long & Prat, 2002; Yi & Friedman, 2014) and processing speed (Salthouse, 1996) and visual attention on everyday memory performance.”
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“This suggests that decreased processing speed reduces the amount of information individuals can hold in memory to use in subsequent cognitive processes (Fry & Hale, 2000), leading to what Salthouse (1996) has called the simultaneity problem for older adults.”
Background
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“In addition, as individuals age, their working memory decline (Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
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“Because aging is also related to reduced cognitive speed (Salthouse, 1996), which is reflected in lower perceptual and psychomotor speed (Salthouse, 2000), it is important to mention that the pointing condition of the present task required both of these processes.”
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Background
[Normative data of the abbreviated-revised Barcelona test for cognitively active elderly people].
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“This is infrequently observed in practice, demonstrated by the failure to consistently replicate cross-sectional findings underlying cognitive aging theories such as processing speed (Salthouse, 1996) or common cause theory (Christensen et al., 2001) in longitudinal datasets.”
Background
Neuropsychology with older adults
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“Salthouse(1996)의 연구에 의하면 인지조작에서의 처리 속도 저하 가 다양한 기억과 인지 변인들 중 연령 관련 변량의 75%를 설 명하였다.”
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“To compensate for the generalized slowing in old age (for a review, see Salthouse, 1996a), the older adult participants were given more time (+1000 ms) for encoding, association, and retrieval than younger adults (see Table 1).”
Background
Effects of Semantic Feature Analysis Treatment on Landmark Naming in Individuals with Subjective Memory Impairment
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“노화에 따른 이름대기 능력 저하를 규명하는 연구들은 첫째, 처 리속도이론(processing speed theory; Myerson, Ferraro, Hale, & Lima, 1992; Salthouse, 1996)을 바탕으로 한다.”
Levels of Processing
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“노년층의 경우, 정상적인 노화의 과정으로 작업기억, 주의력, 억제와 같은 인지-언어 능력의 감퇴(Park, 2004)로 인해 정신 조작 을 수행하는 속도가 전반적으로 감소하고(Salthouse, 1996) 처리 자원을 요구하는 인지과제 수행에서 결함을 보일 수 있다고 보고된 다(Craik & Byrd, 1982).”
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“…based on shared age-related variance across various measures of speed and attenuation of age-correlations after speed-variance is controlled for, Salthouse (1996) has argued that between-person differences and within-person change in the speed of basic processes are common factors behind…”
Background
Trail Making Test performance contributes to subjective judgment of visual efficiency in older adults
(2015) · Draw Science · doi:10.18516/0010 · Cited by 2
Aging and Cognition☆
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SAFE-R
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“DSST is a classic indicator and is widely used to measure psychomotor speed, reflecting the fundamental aspects of brain function (Amieva et al. 2019; Birren and Fisher 1995; Ciafone et al. 2021; Hoyer et al. 2004; Ouvrard et al. 2019; Rosano et al. 2008; Salthouse 1996; Xiong et al. 2021).”
BackgroundInfluential
Age does not modify the processing architecture of dual memory retrieval: an investigation of age-related effects on dual-retrieval practice in younger and older adults
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“Thus, while age impacts the speed of processing in our task (Fisk & Warr, 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991), it does not appear to affect the likelihood of grouping versus non-grouping of responses.”
Background
The effect of video playback speed on learning and mind-wandering in younger and older adults
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Retracted
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“Lower switch rates with increasing age on the continuous series verbal fluency task may have resulted from an overall slowing of underlying cognitive processing (Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
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Coelho, C. D. S., Hering, A., Zuber, S., Spurio, G., Bisiacchi, P. S., & Kliegel, M. (2023) · Journal of Ageing and Longevity · doi:10.3390/jal3040024 · Cited by 2
“As for possible mechanisms, we have to remain speculative at this point, but as previously mentioned, studies have shown that, in general, positive stimuli tend to elicit approach tendencies while negative stimuli elicit avoidance tendencies [52–54].”
Result
What is the psychology of aging?
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Cavanagh, T. M., Kraiger, K., Byrne, Z., Rhodes, M., & Chermack, T. (2007) · Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University) · doi:10.25675/3.023977 · Cited by 2
A neuropsychological study of first-time sex offenders over the age of 50: the possible contribution of cognitive deficits in sexual offending
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Paxton, J. L. (2011) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k78s4n2x · Cited by 2
“Several theories have been put forth in attempt to explain the cognitive changes that occur with healthy aging such as reduced processing resources (Craik & Byrd, 1982), reduced ability to maintain and manipulate information in working memory (see Light, 1991, for a review), reduced speed of processing (Cerella, 1985;…”
Background
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Maddox, G. B. (2013) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k7rf5s56 · Cited by 2
“1 Introduction Healthy aging is marked by broad declines in episodic memory and other cognitive abilities (Arking, 1998; Balota, Dolan & Duchek, 2000; Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
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“Se trató de un estudio de tipo descriptivo-correlacional de corte transversal (Hernández Sampieri, Fernández Collado y Baptista Lucio, 2008)”
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“Based on the cognitive theory of aging, slowdowns of cognitive processing in older adults can explain the age related differences between older and younger adults [6,7].”
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“…perspective, research in cognitive ageing seeks to demonstrate how cognitive functioning in an everyday context differs from and adds to our understanding of basic mechanisms of cognitive change (e.g. age-related slowing in information-processing speed; Salthouse, 1996) found in the laboratory.”
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Authors: Salthouse, T. A.
Affiliations: Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
Corresponding author: Salthouse, Timothy A.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 3
Pages: 403-428
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403
OpenAlex: W2039752037
Semantic Scholar: 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
Cited by: 5,902
References: 113
Citations by year: 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
FWCI: 81.40
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time

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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition

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