The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 212 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Suicide as escape from self.
Abstract
Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness. The causal chain begins with events that fall severely short of standards and expectations. These failures are attributed internally, which makes self-awareness painful. Awareness of the self's inadequacies generates negative affect, and the individual therefore desires to escape from self-awareness and the associated affect. The person tries to achieve a state of cognitive deconstruction (constricted temporal focus, concrete thinking, immediate or proximal goals, cognitive rigidity, and rejection of meaning), which helps prevent meaningful self-awareness and emotion. The deconstructed state brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable. Suicide can be seen as an ultimate step in the effort to escape from self and world.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Some of the behavioral manifestations found in previous research are avoidance (Moskalenko and Heine 2003), self-harm (Baumeister 1990; Morin and Craig 2000), increased emotional intensity (Silvia 2002), and -particularly pertinent to our research -self-regulation (Bandura 1978; Carver and Scheier 2004; Kanfer 1977).”
From Paradoxical effects of self-awareness of being observed: testing the effect of police body-worn cameras on assaults and aggression against officers (2018) · cites this paper as Baumeister 1990
In the citing paper
“Some of the predominant psychological frameworks that attempt to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include escape from pain as a key factor [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Accepting reality and reducing avoidance are fundamental aims of ACT, and this therapeutic work is aligned with the theories of suicide that focus on an individual’s sense of entrapment and/or desire to escape their current reality [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
Citations
Cites
(1969) · Cited by 18,340
Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. Attachment
Rever, G. W. (1972) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-197211000-00011 · Cited by 8,446 · cited 1×
“Anxiety may often be caused by the threat of exclusion from social groups or loss of social bonds (e.g., Baumeister, in press; Baumeister & Tice, in press; Bowlby, 1969, 1973).”
BackgroundIllusion and well‐being: A social psychological perspective on mental health
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 · Cited by 7,814
Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.
Higgins, E. T. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319 · Cited by 7,219
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
(1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,257
Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation.
Taylor, S. E. (1983) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.38.11.1161 · Cited by 3,166
(1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,635
Attention and Self-Regulation : A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,580
Behavior: The Control of Perception
Kuhn, A., & Powers, W. T. (1975) · Contemporary Sociology · doi:10.2307/2063243 · Cited by 2,398
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 1,006
Developing independence in a life transition: Investing the self in the concerns of the day.
Zirkel, S. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.62.3.506 · Cited by 53
Attitudes Toward the Body in Suicidal, Depressed, and Normal Adolescents
Orbach, I., Lotem‐Peleg, M., & Kedem, P. (1995) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1995.tb00920.x · Cited by 53
Wetherall, K., Daly, M., Robb, K. A., Wood, A. M., & O’Connor, R. C. (2015) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1050-1 · Cited by 52
“In recent decades, it has become increasingly recognised that mental disorders are not sufficiently specific markers of suicidal ideation and behaviour [3–5].”
BackgroundProblem gaming and suicidality: A systematic literature review
Erevik, E. K., Landrø, H., Mattson, Å. L., Kristensen, J. H., Kaur, P., & Pallesen, S. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100419 · Cited by 63
“One potential third variable that may be particularly relevant is escapism as both problem gaming and suicidality have been suggested, and found, to be associated with a motive of escaping one‘s reality (Baumeister, 1990; Demetrovics et al., 2011; Landrault et al., 2020; Montag et al., 2019).”
BackgroundNegative Bodily Self in Suicide Attempters
Orbach, I., Gilboa‐Schechtman, E., Sheffer, A., Meged, S., Har‐Even, D., & Stein, D. J. (2006) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.2006.36.2.136 · Cited by 52
“, Baumeister, 1990; OrAddress correspondence to Israel Orbach, bach, 1994; Shneidman, 1980). In support of PhD, Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan Unithe above association, Orbach et al. (1995) versity, 52900 Ramat-Gan, Israel; E-mail: orbachi@ mail.”
Papousek, I., Aydin, N., Lackner, H. K., Weiss, E. M., Bühner, M., Schulter, G., Charlesworth, C., & Freudenthaler, H. H. (2014) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12259 · Cited by 51
Flett, G. L., Goldstein, A. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Wekerle, C. (2012) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-012-9130-9 · Cited by 49
Suicide Postvention as Suicide Prevention: Improvement and Expansion in the United States
Praetorius, R. T., & Slater, H. M. (2010) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481181003761336 · Cited by 52
“Baumeister (1990) theorized that people use suicide as an escape.”
BackgroundKhosravani, V., Bastan, F. S., Ardestani, S. M. S., & Ardakani, R. J. (2017) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.080 · Cited by 52
Treating depressive disorders with the Unified Protocol: A preliminary randomized evaluation
Sauer-Zavala, S. E., Bentley, K. H., Steele, S. J., Wilner, J. G., Ametaj, A., Nauphal, M., Cardona, N. D., Wang, M., Farchione, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.072 · Cited by 55
“…point to the experience of intense negative affect as a key factor in the development and maintenance of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Beck, 1986; Joiner, 2005; Linehan 1993; Shneidman, 1993); indeed, neuroticism is associated with suicidal ideation even when…”
BackgroundCyprien, F., de Champfleur, N. M., Deverdun, J., Olié, E., Le Bars, E., Bonafé, A., Mura, T., Jollant, F., Courtet, P., & Artero, S. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.026 · Cited by 50
McGregor, I., Hayes, J., & Prentice, M. S. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01325 · Cited by 64
“If viable family relationships or cultural norms are not available to provide clear direction and purpose, people use suicide to escape the unbearable burden of choice (Durkheim, 1897/1951; see also Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundChon, D., & Sitkin, S. B. (2021) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2018.0079 · Cited by 59
Narcissistic Personality and Vulnerability to Late-Life Suicidality
Heisel, M. J., Links, P. S., Conn, D. K., van Reekum, R., & Flett, G. L. (2007) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.jgp.0000260853.63533.7d · Cited by 50
Testing the Escape Theory of Suicide in an Outpatient Clinical Population
Dean, P. J., & Range, L. M. (1999) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018728606568 · Cited by 50
“Hopeless individuals are unable to foresee a pleasant acceptable future because they expect negative things ( Baumeister, 1990; Beck, Kovacs, & Weissman, 1975).”
BackgroundInfluentialHurtful Family Environments: Links with Individual, Relationship, and Perceptual Variables
Vangelisti, A. L., Maguire, K., Alexander, A., & Clark, G. (2007) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637750701543477 · Cited by 47
“According to Baumeister (1990), cognitive deconstruction is typified by emotional numbness, lethargy, an altered perception of time, perceptions of meaninglessness, and avoidance of self-focused attention.”
BackgroundAn Empirical Study of the Psychodynamics of Suicide
Kaslow, N. J., Reviere, S. L., Chance, S. E., Rogers, J. H., Hatcher-Kay, C. A., Wasserman, F., Smith, L. C., Jessee, S. S., James, M. E., Seelig, B. J., et al. (1998) · Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association · doi:10.1177/00030651980460030701 · Cited by 50
“Suicide then reflects a response to feelings of narcissistic rage, shame, or other forms of aversive self-awareness (Baumeister 1990).”
BackgroundNarcissistic Personality Disorder: Progress in Recognition and Treatment
Ronningstam, E., & Weinberg, I. (2013) · Focus · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.11.2.167 · Cited by 50
The Role of Perfectionism and Autobiographical Memory in a Sample of Parasuicide Patients
Rasmussen, S. A., O’Connor, R. C., & Brodie, D. (2008) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910.29.2.64 · Cited by 54
“As a result, research within these areas has highlighted the importance of including personality and cognitive factors in the development of effective predictive models of suicidality (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Pollock & Williams, 2004).”
BackgroundTsai, M. V., Lari, H., Saffy, S., & Klonsky, E. D. (2020) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2020.08.007 · Cited by 66
“…implicating hopelessness (Abramson et al., 2000), psychological pain (Shneidman, 1993), social isolation (Durkheim, 1897/1951), and an escape from an aversive state of mind (Baumeister, 1990) as causes of suicide each treat suicidality as a single phenomenon in need of a single explanation.”
BackgroundLaghaei, M., Honarmand, M. M., Jobson, L., Ranjbar, H. A., & Habibi, M. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04699-8 · Cited by 63
“, DER) and finally lead toward depressive symptoms and SI as a manifestation of depression or as an experiential avoidance strategy [86] used to shy away from all psychache [27, 87] imposed by ChT and depressive states.”
BackgroundThe Importance of Mental Pain and Physical Dissociation in Youth Suicidality
Levinger, S., Somer, E., & Holden, R. R. (2015) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2014.989644 · Cited by 50
“Although psychological dissociation might play an important factor in the suicidal act (Shneidman, 1980) and in the development of suicidal tendencies (Baumeister, 1990), a specific facilitator in initiating the act of selfharm and suicide is dissociation from one’s body, or physical dissociation (Orbach, 1994, 2006).”
BackgroundExperimental Test of Escape Theory: Accessibility to Implicit Suicidal Mind
Tang, J., Wu, S., & Miao, D. (2013) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12021 · Cited by 49
“While knowledge of the factors that are associated with or contribute to the development of suicidal ideation remains limited, Baumeister’s Escape Theory of suicide provides one possible model for explaining the development of suicidal ideation (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundHow Henry Hellyer’s Use of Language Foretold His Suicide
Baddeley, J. L., Daniel, G. R., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2011) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000092 · Cited by 54
“Theories have linked suicidality to social isolation (Durkheim, 1951) and a heightened focus on the self (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundBell, J., Mok, K., Gardiner, E., & Pirkis, J. (2017) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2017.1334609 · Cited by 56
“If we consider that some suicides are driven by a desire to escape from overwhelming unbearable emotional experiences (Baumeister, 1990), the idea that having a place where one can consider impartial, factual information about suicide methods (with neutral discourse uncontaminated by emotive content) can have a preven…”
BackgroundInfluentialDifferentiating suicidal motivations and manifestations in a forensic sample.
Holden, R. R., & Kroner, D. G. (2003) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/h0087184 · Cited by 49
The Self and the Psychology of Domestic Homicide-Suicide
Starzomski, A., & Nussbaum, D. S. (2000) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x00444005 · Cited by 49
“In keeping with Baumeister’s (1990) model, internal attributions for failure propel such men to engage in cognitive deconstruction to escape the pain of appreciating the perceived magnitude of their chaotic situation.”
BackgroundRibeiro, J. D., Yen, S., Joiner, T., & Siegler, I. C. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.07.037 · Cited by 48
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript sufficient) predictor of death by suicide; however, they are less compatible with escapebased models of suicide (e.g., Escape Theory (Baumeister, 1990), Psychache Theory (Shneidman, 1993); Cry of Pain (Williams, 1997)).”
BackgroundMethodCollins, K. R. L., Best, I., Stritzke, W. G. K., & Page, A. C. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000167 · Cited by 57
Suicide Prediction – A Shift in Paradigm Is Needed
Hawgood, J. L., & Leo, D. D. (2016) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000440 · Cited by 48
The Workplace Interpersonal Conflict Scale: An Alternative in Conflict Assessment
Wright, R. R., Nixon, A. E., Peterson, Z. B., Thompson, S. V., Olson, R., Martin, S., & Marrott, D. (2017) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2325-7342.jn22.3.163 · Cited by 60
Leeman, R. F., Grant, J. E., & Potenza, M. N. (2009) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.855 · Cited by 50
“The “escape theory” of suicide (Baumeister, 1990) posits that individuals engaging in suicidal behavior are not necessarily impulsive at a trait level.”
BackgroundLyu, J., Lim, Y. O., & Kim, Y. B. (2020) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244020957027 · Cited by 48
“Elderly suicide can be explained from different perspectives, such as psychological (Baumeister, 1990; Freud, 1957; Joiner, 2005; Menninger, 1933; Shneidman, 1993), sociological (Cowgill, 1974; Durkheim, 1951), and biological (Jamison, 1999; Mann, 2003).”
BackgroundTrajectories of Affective Response as Warning Signs for Suicide Attempts
Bagge, C. L., Littlefield, A. K., & Glenn, C. R. (2017) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616681628 · Cited by 51
“In addition, our findings are also in line with many social-psychological theories of suicide (Durkheim, 1951; Joiner, 2005; O’Connor, 2011), as well as theories linking negative self-attributions (Baumeister, 1990) and defeat/humiliation to suicide (O’Connor, 2011).”
ResultRogers, M. L., Chu, C., & Joiner, T. E. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22743 · Cited by 47
“For instance, theories on psychache (Shneidman, 1996), hopelessness (Beck, Steer, Kovacs, & Garrison, 1985), escape (Baumeister, 1990), and the three-step theory (Klonsky & May, 2015) emphasize intractability and psychological pain; however, the specifics of agony are not described in detail.”
BackgroundReweighing the Ethical Tradeoffs in the Involuntary Hospitalization of Suicidal Patients
Borecky, A., Thomsen, C., & Dubov, A. (2019) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2019.1654557 · Cited by 51
“lack of critical thinking (Baumeister 1990), actively discussing options with patients may help them generate alternatives that enhance their decision-making capacity (Britton, Williams, and Conner 2008).”
BackgroundJohnson, J., Tarrier, N., & Gooding, P. A. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.04.007 · Cited by 50
“Explaining perceptions of entrapment or lack of escape (Baumeister, 1990; Dean & Range, 1999; Hunter & O’Connor, 2003) is a core theme of the model in which arrested flight (Williams et al.”
BackgroundAnderson, J. R. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0257 · Cited by 46
Using network analysis to identify central symptoms of college students' mental health
Ma, S., Yang, J., Xu, J., Zhang, N., Kang, L., Wang, P., Wang, W. J., Yang, B. X., Li, R., Xiang, D., et al. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.05.065 · Cited by 52
Xu, M., Zhang, X., Li, Y., Chen, S., Zhang, Y., Zhou, Z., Lin, S., Dong, T., Hou, G., & Qiu, Y. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02147-x · Cited by 46
“…interviews are commonly used and reliable evaluation methods to assess patients ’ suicidal risk [86, 87], other suicidal risk assessment scales, such as the Nurses ’ Global Assessment of Suicide Risk (NGASR), should be jointly used to assess the suicidality of MDD patients in the future [88, 89].”
MethodGrit and Perseverance in Suicidal Behavior and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury
Anestis, M. D., & Selby, E. A. (2015) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2014.946629 · Cited by 46
“One common factor amongst several theoretical frameworks is the notion that suicidal behavior emerges suddenly and impulsively, potentially serving as an escape from momentary aversive states (Baumeister, 1990; Chatard & Selimbegoic, 2011; Mann, Waternaux, Haas, & Malone, 1999).”
BackgroundPsychopathic Personality Traits, Suicide Ideation, and Suicide Attempts in Male Prison Inmates
Smith, P. N., Selwyn, C. N., Wolford‐Clevenger, C., & Mandracchia, J. T. (2013) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854813506884 · Cited by 47
“Such problem-solving deficits and impulsivity, in the face of depressive symptoms, may lead persons with elevated levels of secondary psychopathic traits to experience suicide ideation at a higher rate (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundPerfectionism, narcissism, and depression in suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescent inpatients
Freudenstein, O., Valevski, A., Apter, A., Zohar, A. H., Shoval, G., Nahshoni, E., Weizman, A., & Zalsman, G. (2012) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.08.011 · Cited by 46
“These are predictors of suicide attempts among adolescents [17-20].”
BackgroundShen, Y., Zhang, Y., Chan, B. S. M., Meng, F., Yang, T., Luo, X., & Huang, C. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02555-7 · Cited by 48
Follmer, K. B., & Follmer, D. J. (2020) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.12.002 · Cited by 47
Momentary interpersonal processes of suicidal surges in borderline personality disorder
Kaurin, A., Dombrovski, A. Y., Hallquist, M. N., & Wright, A. G. C. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720004791 · Cited by 44
“, 2019), but also by low PA, which may undermine a persons’ ability to find alternative solutions or put the current crisis in perspective (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundFranz, P. J., Kleiman, E. M., & Nock, M. K. (2021) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-021-10214-8 · Cited by 51
“…J. Franz pfranz@g.harvard.edu 1 Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA 2 Department of Psychology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA 1 3 these types of stressful events is a proximal causal factor in STBs (Baumeister 1990; Shneidman 1993).”
BackgroundCumulative Trauma, Hyperarousal, and Suicidality in the General Population: A Path Analysis
Briere, J., Godbout, N., & Dias, C. P. (2015) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2014.970265 · Cited by 50
“Given this, a related posttraumatic correlate of suicidality might be the PTSD avoidance cluster, as suicidal behavior can be characterized as an avoidance response (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Briere et al., 2010; Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Follette, & Strosahl, 1996).”
BackgroundRecent Stressful Life Events and Suicide Attempt
Wang, Y., Sareen, J., Afifi, T. O., Bolton, J. M., Johnson, E. A., & Bolton, J. M. (2012) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20120217-07 · Cited by 44
Cognitive, Emotional, Temperament, and Personality Trait Correlates of Suicidal Behavior
Giner, L., Blasco-Fontecilla, H., Vega, D., & Courtet, P. (2016) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0742-x · Cited by 48
Bentley, K. H., Sauer-Zavala, S. E., Cassiello-Robbins, C. F., Conklin, L. R., Vento, S. A., & Homer, D. (2017) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445516689661 · Cited by 44
“First, the propensity to experience intense negative affect is a key component of prominent theoretical models explicating the emergence of STBs (e.g., Abramson et al., 2000; Baumeister, 1990; Beck, 1986; Joiner, 2005; Linehan, 1993; Shneidman, 1993).”
BackgroundKang, N., You, J., Huang, J., Ren, Y., Lin, M., & Xu, S. (2018) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12455 · Cited by 45
Maiolatesi, A. J., Clark, K. A., & Pachankis, J. E. (2022) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0001109 · Cited by 50
Effective interventions for gaming disorder: A systematic review of randomized control trials
Chen, Y., Lu, J., Wang, L., & Gao, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1098922 · Cited by 53
“Those with GD are frequently in need of support but they rarely seek it out of a wish to avoid painful issues surrounding selfawareness and its associated negative effects (73).”
BackgroundFrom the Serotonin Model of Suicide to a Mental Pain Model of Suicide
de León, J., Baca‐García, E., & Blasco-Fontecilla, H. (2015) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000438510 · Cited by 44
Brezo, J., Paris, J., Hébert, M., Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R., & Turecki, G. (2008) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-8-15 · Cited by 44
“All three of these personality constructs have been linked to suicidal tendencies in diverse populations [57,58,24].”
BackgroundSuicidal ideation and drinking to cope among college binge drinkers
Gonzalez, V. M., & Hewell, V. M. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.03.027 · Cited by 44
“Similar to motivational models, suicide theorists have suggested that alcohol is used to escape the painful self-awareness associated with suicidality (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundRoush, J. F., Brown, S. L., Mitchell, S. M., & Cukrowicz, K. C. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1395923 · Cited by 50
“…2008), which is consistent with other theories of suicide suggesting individuals may attempt suicide to escape an aversive state of selfawareness (Baumeister, 1990), hopelessness (Beck, Brown, Berchick, Stewart, & Steer, 1990), psychological pain (i.e., psychache; Shneidman, 1993), and thwarted…”
ResultToward a General Theory of Anomie The Social Psychology of Disintegration
Abrutyn, S. B. (2019) · European Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1017/s0003975619000043 · Cited by 50
“Baumeister Ray, 1990.”
Cheikh‐Ammar, M. (2020) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2020.103368 · Cited by 51
Motivations for suicide: converging evidence from clinical and community samples
May, A. M., Pachkowski, M. C., & Klonsky, E. D. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.02.010 · Cited by 44
Bentley, K. H., Coppersmith, D. D. L., Kleiman, E. M., Nook, E. C., Mair, P., Millner, A. J., Reid-Russell, A., Wang, S. B., Fortgang, R. G., Stein, M. B., et al. (2021) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-021-00058-6 · Cited by 46
“For instance, suicide has long been conceptualized as escape from intense, aversive NA (Baumeister, 1990; Maltsberger, 2004).”
BackgroundTao, Y., Hou, W., Niu, H., Ma, Z., Zheng, Z., Wang, S., Liu, X., & Zhang, L. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.120 · Cited by 47
“Once one's or parents' expectations are not met (Liu and Tein, 2005), these students tend to attribute these failures internally (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundInfluentialMu, H., Li, Y., Liu, L., Na, J., Yu, L., Bi, X., An, X., Gu, Y., Zhou, Y. F., Li, S., et al. (2016) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-016-0830-9 · Cited by 45
“This is consistent with an escape model of suicide [57, 58].”
ResultCognitive, Emotional, and Motivational Consequences of Dehumanization
Zhang, H., Chan, D. K. ‐., Xia, S., Tian, Y., & Zhu, J. (2017) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2017.35.1.18 · Cited by 43
Lindenberg, K., Halasy, K., & Schoenmaekers, S. (2017) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2017.02.011 · Cited by 43
Duprey, E. B., Oshri, A., & Liu, S. (2018) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2018.1430640 · Cited by 43
“Youth with low self-esteem may think about suicide as a way to escape from the distressing cognitions and emotions that are associated with their negative selfconcept (Baumeister, 1990; Harter, 2012).”
BackgroundMeerwijk, E. L., & Weiss, S. J. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.02.005 · Cited by 43
“…A uthor M anuscript why some and not others engage in suicidal behavior may be found in the individual ability to bear psychological pain, which is central to many theories that describe why people attempt and die by suicide (Baumeister, 1990; Leenaars, 1996; Maltsberger, 2004; Shneidman, 1993).”
BackgroundJiang, Y., Ren, Y., Liu, T., & You, J. (2020) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12293 · Cited by 54
“In order to get rid of depressive feelings, NSSI is often used (Baumeister, 1990; Klonsky, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodKyron, M. J., Rikkers, W., Page, A. C., O’Brien, P., Bartlett, J., LaMontagne, A. D., & Lawrence, D. M. (2020) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867420937774 · Cited by 55
“According to prominent escape theories, suicidal ideation may potentially represent a desire to escape from distressing thoughts and feelings, albeit maladaptive (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundPsychoanalytic Perspectives on Adolescent Suicide
King, R. A., & Apter, A. (1996) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.1996.11822443 · Cited by 43
East Meets West: Parallels Between Zen Buddhism and Social Psychology
McIntosh, W. D. (1997) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr0701_5 · Cited by 42
Self-forgiveness in Psychology and Psychotherapy: A Critique
Vitz, P., & Meade, J. (2011) · Journal of religion and health · doi:10.1007/s10943-010-9343-x · Cited by 50
Zhang, X., Ren, Y., You, J., Huang, C., Jiang, Y., Lin, M., & Leung, F. Y. K. (2017) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0266-9 · Cited by 57
Differentiating Suicide Attempters from Suicide Ideators: The Role of Capability for Suicide
Ren, Y., You, J., Zhang, X., Huang, J., Conner, B. T., Sun, R., Xu, S., & Lin, M. (2018) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2018.1426507 · Cited by 42
“Finally, depressive symptoms and hopelessness have traditionally been regarded as important risk factors for suicidality (Baumeister, 1990; Joiner, 2005; Klonsky & May, 2015; O’Connor, 2011; Schotte & Clum, 1982).”
BackgroundSlade, K., Edelmann, R. J., Worrall, M., & Bray, D. E. (2012) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8333.2012.02065.x · Cited by 43
“The CoP model builds on the previous work of Baumeister (1990) and his Escape Theory of Suicide and Gilbert & Allen’s ‘arrested flight’ theory (1998).”
MethodDepression: A Biopsychosocial, Integrative, and Evolutionary Approach
Gilbert, P. (2004) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470696385.ch6 · Cited by 42
Ribeiro, J. D., Silva, C., & Joiner, T. E. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.03.036 · Cited by 51
“An alternative perspective can be drawn from escape-based models of suicide, such as Escape Theory (Baumeister, 1990), Psychache Theory (Shneidman, 1993, 1998), and the Cry of Pain Model (O’Connor, 2003).”
InfluentialZarrouq, B., Bendaou, B., Elkinany, S., Rammouz, I., Aalouane, R., Lyoussi, B., Khelafa, S., Bout, A., Berhili, N., Hlal, H., et al. (2015) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0680-x · Cited by 41
“To illustrate, the use of certain PASs alongside with suicidal behaviors are related with strong feelings of escapism [45, 46].”
BackgroundFranz, P. J., Nook, E. C., Mair, P., & Nock, M. K. (2019) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12569 · Cited by 44
“One prominent theory suggests that suicide serves as an escape from intolerable distress about disappointment or unmet goals (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundThe Causal Role of Consciousness: A Conceptual Addendum to Human Evolutionary Psychology
Bering, J. M., & Shackelford, T. K. (2004) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.227 · Cited by 41
“Baumeister (1990) has even referred to suicide as “escape from self.””
BackgroundThe prisoners of despair: right hemisphere deficiency and suicide
Weinberg, I. (2000) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00038-5 · Cited by 43
“Baumeister [20] calls this state of mind “cognitive deconstruction”.”
BackgroundSuicidal Behavior in a Young Offender Population
Howard, J., Lennings, C. J., & Copeland, J. (2003) · Crisis · doi:10.1027//0227-5910.24.3.98 · Cited by 41
Wu, W. C. H., & Bond, M. H. (2005) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811110500318430 · Cited by 41
“For example, psychologists like Baumeister (1990) mainly focused on the individual Archives of Suicide Research, 10:45–60, 2006 Copyright # International Academy for Suicide Research ISSN: 1381-1118 print/1543-6136 online DOI: 10.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTesting the Integrated Motivational-Volitional Model of Suicidal Behavior in Chinese Adolescents
Li, X., Ren, Y., Zhang, X., Zhou, J., Su, B., Liu, S., Cai, H., Liu, J., & You, J. (2020) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2019.1690607 · Cited by 48
“For example, Baumeister (1990) proposed that suicide is a means to escape from aversive self-awareness.”
BackgroundPanagioti, M., Gooding, P. A., & Tarrier, N. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22103 · Cited by 43
Can Perceived Burdensomeness Explain the Relationship Between Suicide and Perfectionism?
Rasmussen, K. A., Slish, M. L., Wingate, L. R., Davidson, C. L., & Grant, D. M. (2012) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.2011.00074.x · Cited by 39
The Social Nature of Male Suicide: A New Analytic Model
Coleman, D. K., Kaplan, M. S., & Casey, J. T. (2011) · International Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.3149/jmh.1003.240 · Cited by 40
“Baumeister’s (1990) escape theory applies well to male suicide.”
InfluentialShame-proneness in attempted suicide patients
Wiklander, M., Samuelsson, M., Jokinen, J., Nilsonne, Å., Wilczek, A., Rylander, G., & Åsberg, M. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-50 · Cited by 40
“Suicide can be understood as an act intended to terminate intolerable psychological pain [1,2].”
BackgroundPark, K., & Yang, T. (2017) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1080/00380253.2017.1331718 · Cited by 48
“First, self-esteem influences behavior because individuals adopt or change their behaviors to either maintain or boost their self-esteem (Baumeister 1990; Jessor et al. 1995; Longmore et al. 2004).”
BackgroundResultLi, X., Bian, C., Chen, Y., Huang, J., Ma, Y., Tang, L., Yan, Q., Ye, X., Tang, J., & Yu, Y. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.008 · Cited by 41
Towards an understanding of assimilation in virtual worlds: the 3C approach
Schwarz, A., Schwarz, C., Jung, Y., Pérez, B., & Wiley-Patton, S. (2011) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1057/ejis.2011.49 · Cited by 38
“Escape Theory has been applied to a variety of behaviors, including binge eating (Baumeister & Scher, 1988; Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991), sexual masochism (Baumeister, 1990), and suicide (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991).”
BackgroundThe role of affect in suicidal thoughts and behaviors
Yamokoski, C. A., Scheel, K. R., & Rogers, J. R. (2011) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.2011.00019.x · Cited by 39
Mental Defeat Is Associated With Suicide Intent in Patients With Chronic Pain
Tang, N. K. Y., Beckwith, P., & Ashworth, P. (2015) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000000276 · Cited by 39
Giletta, M., Hastings, P. D., Rudolph, K. D., Bauer, D. J., Nock, M. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (2016) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579416001218 · Cited by 39
“…of suicide (e.g., escape theories of suicide) propose that suicide ideation represents an attempt to escape from extreme, aversive emotional distress, which may emerge among individuals with poor emotion regulation, especially in response to stressful events (Baumeister, 1990; Linehan, 1993).”
BackgroundResultChen, Z., Poon, K., & Cheng, C. (2017) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.04.057 · Cited by 39
Schönfelder, A., Rath, D., Forkmann, T., Paashaus, L., Lucht, L., Teismann, T., Stengler, K., Juckel, G., & Glaesmer, H. (2021) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12293 · Cited by 39
“While traditional attempts to understand suicidality often focussed on single risk factors (Baumeister, 1990), more recent theoretical models have begun taking interactions between different factors into account (Klonsky, May, & Saffer, 2016; O’Connor & Kirtley, 2018).”
BackgroundSubstance Abuse, Suicidality, and Self-Esteem in South African Adolescents
Wild, L. G., Flisher, A. J., Bhana, A., & Lombard, C. J. (2004) · Journal of Drug Education · doi:10.2190/07c2-p41f-4u2p-jh0q · Cited by 39
Chin, J., & Holden, R. R. (2013) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12025 · Cited by 40
A Longitudinal Study of Self-Awareness and Depressed Mood in Adolescence
Chen, H., Mechanic, D., & Hansell, S. (1998) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1023/a:1022809815567 · Cited by 43
“Hansell, 1987; Garber et al., 1993; Baumeister, 1990 ), but it is still unclear whether these links remain stable or vary during adolescence.”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Baumeister, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baumeister, Roy F.
- ORCID
- Baumeister, Roy F.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1990
- Volume
- 97
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 90-113
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2098559214
- Cited by
- 1,919
- References
- 212
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 137 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 88 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 92 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 67
- FWCI
- 13.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Disorders
- Keywords
- suicide, self-awareness, negative affect, internal attribution, self-justification, disinhibition, irrationality, meaning, temporal focus, concrete thinking, cognitive rigidity
- MeSH terms
- Depressive Disorder, Escape Reaction, Humans, Self Concept, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
