Suicide as escape from self.

“Anxiety may often be caused by the threat of exclusion from social groups or loss of social bonds (e.g., Baumeister, in press; Baumeister & Tice, in press; Bowlby, 1969, 1973).”

“, 2010) or escape theory of suicide (Baumeister, 1990), could be explored.”

“…find alternative solutions (Pollock and Williams, 2001; Pollock and Williams, 2004); and (iii) the disregard for the tragic consequences of suicide (Baumeister, 1990; Williams and Pollock, 2001), future experiments need to elucidate the contribution of poor cognitive control to these failures of…”

“…of high self-consciousness that might precipitate a bad mood, desires to escape from the self, or a self-defeating spiral—all of which might result in a worsening of performance (for reviews of pathological consequences, see Baumeister, 1990, 1997; Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991; Ingram, 1990).”

“…and LinnGust 2012; Walls, Chapple, and Johnson 2007; Weersinghe and Tepperman 1994); however, a burgeoning body of literature emphasizes shame as a key emotional motivation as well (Adinkrah 2012; Baumeister 1990; Breed 1972; Cleary 2012; Kalafat and Lester 2000; Lester 1997; Mokros 1995).”

“More recently, Baumeister (1990) proposed a comprehensivemotivational/cognitive model that revolves around the effort to escape from aversive emotion and self–awareness.”

“Such a postulation is consonant with predominant models of hopelessness and suicidal behaviour (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989 ; Baumeister, 1990 ; O'Connor, 2003 ; O'Connor & O'Connor, 2003 ; Williams & Pollock, 2001 ).”

“The central claim of the Escape Model is that selfawareness is reduced by cognitive narrowing, through a focusing of attention on concrete aspects of the immediate environment (Baumeister, 1990).”

“15,16 This distinction is relevant as trait and state measures of impulsivity correlate weakly with one another 33 − 37 and differ in their relation to self-harm.”

“In order to address these issues, groups of mildly depressed and nondepressed subjects were selected on the basis of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1979). Haaga and Solomon (1993) have suggested that use of the BDI in a nonclinical sample is warranted when the variables under study are expe…”

“Within the suicide literature, theories (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Orbach, 1996) have proposed that negative attitudes toward and/or experiences of the body are among the key pieces to understanding a person’s ability to enact lethal self-harm.”

“, [38,39]) and the escape theory of suicide [40].”

“Not all choices are so benign; a number of dangerous and ultimately self-destructive behaviors may also serve the same function ( Baumeister, 1990, 1991 ).”

“Barber, Marzuk, Leon, and Portera (1998) define aborted suicide attempts as events in which an individual is one step away from attempting suicide but does not do so and thus incurs no physical injury. In a study to investigate the properties of aborted suicide attempts, M. E. Barber and colleagues interviewed 135 psy…”

“Reich et al. [28] maintained that health downturns led to a decrease in self-esteem, an increase in fatalism and carried sufficient weight to trigger the chain of events that Baumeister [29] believed to be related to ultimate suicide ideation.”

“Nishimura, 2006), or the HSV1-thymidine kinase suicide gene in mammals (Herenu, Morel, Bellini, Reggiani, Sosa, Brown, & Goya, 2006). This completely new application of the word "suicide" was already noted by Lester (1992) in his review of the papers on suicide and suicidal behavior published from 1980 to 1990: under…”

“This model is based on Williams (1997) and Baumeister (1990) and conceptualizes suicide attempts as health behaviours with motivational factors (i.e. related to the development of suicidal thoughts) and volitional factors (i.e. translating suicidal thoughts into suicide attempts; O ’ Conner and…”

“Young women’s emotional deficits are primarily anxiety (Baumeister, 1990), hopelessness (Cole, 1989), and depression (Wannan & Fombonne, 1998); boys’ emotional states are more likely to be characterized as aggressive (Prigerson & Slimack, 1999).”

“The escape theory (Baumeister, 1991) explained that when people encounter with failure, setbacks or stress, they are likely to cope with the uncomfortable state by escaping into a relatively numb state of cognitive deconstruction (Baumeister, 1990).”

“Some models, such as suicide as escape from self (Baumeister, 1990), have focused on a single driving motivation (i.e., escape); others, for example, the cognitive model of suicidal behavior (Wenzel & Beck, 2008), have attended to a specific domain of risk (e.g., cognition).”

“Indeed, several researchers have suggested that some people treat escaping from or destroying their lives as the only way to truly avoid the specter of meaninglessness (4, 7, 9, 10).”

“This idea, taken from Baumeister (1989,1990) and Heatherton and Baumeister (1991), hinges on the proposition that threats to their self-image motivate people to escape from self-awareness, which is especially aversive when they encounter negative information about the self.”

“Some of the predominant psychological frameworks that attempt to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include escape from pain as a key factor [17-19].”

“Fazaa and Page (36) found that more highly self-critical patients were more likely to have made a suicide attempt in response to a personal or professional failure, and that their intention in attempting suicide was to escape from the actual events–expectations discrepancy (37), and that their suicide attempts on the…”

“Looking for an ecologically validmodel of depression and following Price and Sloman (1987) and Baumeister (1990), Gilbert developed an entrapment model of suicidal behavior where the combination of defeat (the stressful event) and entrapment (no escape from the situation) can lead to severe…”

“Empirical studies have addressed representations in middle childhood and early adolescence, mainly from a social–cognitive perspective, and have found that positive selfrepresentations are associate with better adjustment and diminished symptomatology (Baumeister, 1990; Damon & Hart, 1988; King, Naylor, Segal, Evans,…”

“There is a good deal of evidence to support the idea that when people are not able to incorporate their personal traumas into their lives, they often find ways to escape themselves through such self-destructive means as suicide, masochism, alcoholism, or bulimia (see Baumeister, 1990, 1991).”

“For example, anxiety symptoms may become overwhelming or distressing to the adolescent, directly inciting thoughts of suicide as a means of escape (Baumeister, 1990).”

“Of note, suicidal individuals are often ambivalent about the choice to take their own life, a state of mind that may also be compounded by the inability to engage in critical thinking about their suicidal state (Baumeister, 1990).”

“…affect (Silk, Steinberg, & Morris, 2003), borderline personality disorder (Linehan, 1993), anxiety disorders (Mennin, Heimberg, Turk, & Fresco, 2005), substance abuse (Cooper, Frone, Russell, & Mudar, 1995), aggression (Bushman, Baumeis-ter, & Phillips, 2001), and suicidality (Baumeister, 1990).”

“Both the use of certain drugs and suicide attempts may result from an attempt to escape from reality (Baumeister, 1990; Erinoff et al., 2004).”

“These findings are in line with escape theories of suicide (Baumeister, 1990), which suggest that with increases of SI, individuals have more difficulty regulating stress and behavior due to the cognitive disruptions caused by SI.”

“In social psychology literature, Wisman (2006) proposed the defence of “losing the self” by engaging in behaviours that prevent adverse self-awareness (Baumeister, 1988, 1990, 1991).”

“As such, it follows that a common, perhaps normative, aspect of the clinical picture would be strong motivation to find a way to escape the misery (Baumeister, 1990).”

“…Rush, Shaw & Emery, 1979), hopelessness has been 2 VOLUME 7 NUMBER 1 2003 identified as the main suicidogenic element of a depressive state, and thus possibly the most important predictive variable for repetition (Baumeister, 1990; Beck, 1986; Cole, 1988; Ellis & Ratliff, 1986; Glanz et al., 1995).”

“Given that suicidal behaviors may represent an attempt to cope with emotional distress for which adaptive coping strategies are inaccessible (Baumeister, 1990), reactivity and deficits regulating emotions may link ADHD and depressive symptoms to SI.”

“of self-harm propose that individuals engage in such behaviors in response to a negative mood due to deficits in generating adaptive strategies to cope with distress (Baumeister, 1990; Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006; Klonsky, 2007; Nock & Prinstein, 2004).”

“Cognitive deconstruction Baumeister (1990) claims that suicidal people escape negative feelings, especially shame, by flight into a deconstructed state of mind—they abandon any sense of time, ability to represent higher levels of meaning, and, consequently, focus on the concrete aspects of the…”

“…suicidal behaviour, among which: the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), the diathesis-stress hypothesis (Schotte and Clum, 1987), the escape theory (Baumeister, 1990), the arrested fl ight model of suicidal behaviour (JMG, 2001) and the Interpersonal-Psychological model (Joiner Jr., 2005).”

“Although a detailed review is outside the scope of this article, the wider literature (including but not limited to Baumeister, 1990; Gilbert, Clarke, Hempel, Miles, & Irons, 2004; Kaplan & Pokorny, 1969, Rempel & Buris, 2005; Rosenberg, 1965; Tafarodi & Swann, 1995), in conjunction with the broad…”

“According to the integration of sociometer theory and escape theory, adolescents who perceive high levels of parental phubbing are more likely to appraise themselves negatively and develop low self-esteem (Baumeister, 1990; Leary & Baumeister, 2000).”

“As a result, there is a growing body of knowledge to support diathesis-stress models of psychological distress and, more recently, of suicidality (Baumeister, 1990; Chang & Sanna, 2001; O’Connor, O’Connor, & Marshall, 2006).”

“…model of the effects of alcohol on self-control (Steele & Josephs, 1990) has much in common with the previously mentioned attentional narrowing model of negative affect (Baumeister, 1990; Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991) and the attentional myopia model of cognitive load (T. Mann & Ward, 2007).”

“Many theories have been put forth in an effort to tease apart the complicated underpinnings of suicide and suicidal behavior (e.g., Baumeister 1990; Durkheim, 1897/1951; Linehan, 1993).”

“[15, 16] Alternate theories may suggest that agitation is so distressing that it will result in using suicide to escape the distress—a view consistent with Psychache Theory[17, 18] and Escape Theory.[19] The interpersonal theory suggests agitation is not causal but instead a byproduct of suicide’s daunting nature.”

“However, emotional states have also been implicated in suicidal behaviour (Baumeister, 1990; Maltsberger, 2004).”

“The fifth SSF item, self-hate, is based on Baumeister’s (1990) theory that suicidality reflects a fundamental attempt to escape from unacceptable perceptions of self.”

“Scholars have previously used theoretical frameworks, such as selftheory (Baumeister, 1990), stress coping theory (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), compensatory internet theory (Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), and emotion dysregulation framework (Gruber et al., 2014, pp. 432–437), to describe the…”

“One explanation is that guilt in escape theory (Baumeister, 1990) is more closely related to shame.”

“Low mood is often reported in suicide attempts of young people, irrespective of their legal status, and the data reported here provide support for theories such as Baumeister’s (1990) “common pathway” theory, suggesting that selfharming behavior and suicide are probably in part at least explicable as acts of desperati…”

“Indeed, clinical studies have pointed to the important role of regret in late-life depression and suicidal ideation, as well as the adverse life outcomes that are the focus of that regret (Baumeister, 1990; Kraaij et al., 2002; Conwell et al., 2002; Yip et al., 2003).”

“Among individuals reporting lifetime SI, difficulty with anger expression predicted the presence of a suicide plan, and anger expression and anger experience predicted the progression from SI to SA (Baumeister, 1990).”

“These findings are consistent with several psychological theories of suicide including escape theory (Baumeister, 1990), Shneidman’s theory of psychache (1998), the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005; van Orden et al., 2010), the strain theory of suicide (Zhang & Lester, 2008), and the…”

“Indeed, the notion of suicidality as an expression of experiential avoidance is arguably consistent with Baumeister’s [40] depiction of suicide as escape from aversive self-evaluation, Shneidman’s [41] description of ‘egression’ and the drive to escape from an unbearable situation outlined in the Cry of Pain [42].”