Cited by 1,919Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionPsychological Treatments and Disorders

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 212 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Suicide as escape from self.

Baumeister, Roy F.·1990·Psychological Review

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness. The causal chain begins with events that fall severely short of standards and expectations. These failures are attributed internally, which makes self-awareness painful. Awareness of the self's inadequacies generates negative affect, and the individual therefore desires to escape from self-awareness and the associated affect. The person tries to achieve a state of cognitive deconstruction (constricted temporal focus, concrete thinking, immediate or proximal goals, cognitive rigidity, and rejection of meaning), which helps prevent meaningful self-awareness and emotion. The deconstructed state brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable. Suicide can be seen as an ultimate step in the effort to escape from self and world.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.97.1.90

Cites

210 of 210 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Untitled work
(1969) · Cited by 18,340
Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. Attachment
Rever, G. W. (1972) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-197211000-00011 · Cited by 8,446 · cited 1×
“Anxiety may often be caused by the threat of exclusion from social groups or loss of social bonds (e.g., Baumeister, in press; Baumeister & Tice, in press; Bowlby, 1969, 1973).”
Background
Illusion and well‐being: A social psychological perspective on mental health
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 · Cited by 7,814
Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.
Higgins, E. T. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319 · Cited by 7,219
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
Untitled work
(1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,257
Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation.
Taylor, S. E. (1983) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.38.11.1161 · Cited by 3,166
Untitled work
(1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,635
Attention and Self-Regulation : A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,580
Behavior: The Control of Perception
Kuhn, A., & Powers, W. T. (1975) · Contemporary Sociology · doi:10.2307/2063243 · Cited by 2,398

Show all 212 references

Sorted by citations

Items 701–800 of 1,006

Hopelessly mortal: The role of mortality salience, immortality and trait self-esteem in personal hope
Wisman, A., & Heflick, N. A. (2016) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1031643 · Cited by 27
“Ironically, people who lose hope when facing reminders of personal mortality may even be at greater risk of death (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Dual Diagnosis and Suicide Probability in Poly-Drug Users
Baalash, A. (2016) · PubMed · doi:10.5281/zenodo.17049131 · Cited by 22
Coping Style as a Moderator of Perfectionism and Suicidal Ideation Among Undergraduate Students
Abdollahi, A., & Carlbring, P. (2016) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-016-0252-0 · Cited by 24
A suicidal mind tends to maintain less negative information in visual working memory
Xie, W., Li, H., Zou, Y.-M., Sun, X., & Shi, C. (2017) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.043 · Cited by 22
“…has highlighted the motivation component of psychological pain (i.e., the tendency to avoid or escape from psychological pain, hereafter referred to as pain avoidance) in driving suicidal behaviors (Baumeister, 1990; Li et al., 2014; Meerwijk et al., 2013; Orbach et al., 2003; Williams, 2014).”
Background
Self-compassion, the ‘quiet ego’ and materialism
Watson, D. (2018) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00883 · Cited by 22
“Donnelly et al. (2016) apply escape-theory (Baumeister, 1988, 1990) to materialism in terms of the six stages of escape.”
La douleur sociale au centre des conduites suicidaires
Courtet, P., & Olié, É. (2018) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2018.09.005 · Cited by 23
Initial Psychometric Properties of the Attentional Fixation on Suicide Experiences Questionnaire
Adler, A., Jager‐Hyman, S., Green, K. L., Brown, G. K., Beck, A. T., & Wenzel, A. E. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9683-7 · Cited by 22
“Similarly, Baumeister (1990) described cognitive deconstruction as the process of denying meaningful thought in order to avoid negative affect.”
Background
Exhausted without trust and inherent worth: A model of the suicide process based on experiential accounts
Benson, O., Gibson, S., Boden, Z., & Owen, G. J. (2016) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.06.045 · Cited by 22
Factors mediating suicidal behaviour: Their utility in primary and secondary prevention
Williams, J. M., & Pollock, L. R. (1993) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.3109/09638239309016951 · Cited by 22
Does Legalized Gambling Elevate the Risk of Suicide? An Analysis of U.S. Counties and Metropolitan Areas
McCleary, R., Chew, K. S. Y., Merrill, V., & Napolitano, C. (2002) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.32.2.209.24402 · Cited by 22
Mathematical and Computational Modeling of Suicidal Thinking as a Complex Dynamical SystemPreprint
Wang, S. B., Robinaugh, D. J., Millner, A. J., Fortgang, R. G., Hamm, S., Barrow, C., & Nock, M. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/b29cs · Cited by 24
Brief and ultra-brief suicide-specific interventions
Stanley, B., Brodsky, B., & Monahan, M. (2023) · Focus · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20220083 · Cited by 22
Mental Pain Questionnaire: An item response theory analysis
Svicher, A., Romanazzo, S., De Cesaris, F., Benemei, S., Geppetti, P., & Cosci, F. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.02.030 · Cited by 21
Associations of Emotional Abuse Types With Suicide Ideation Among Dating Couples
Wolford‐Clevenger, C., Grigorian, H. L., Brem, M. J., Florimbio, A. R., Elmquist, J., & Stuart, G. L. (2017) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1335821 · Cited by 25
“Victims may begin to fantasize about suicide as a path to oblivion where such emotional suffering no longer exists (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Typologies of Suicide: A Critical Literature Review
Martin, J., LaCroix, J. M., Novak, L. A., & Ghahramanlou‐Holloway, M. (2019) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2018.1564100 · Cited by 20
“Thus, escapist suicide can be thought of as maladaptive problem solving and is similar to Menninger’s (1938) wish to die and wish to be killed, and other theories of suicidal behavior based on a motivation to escape one’s self or feelings of entrapment (Baumeister, 1990; O’Connor, 2011.”
Background
How men step back – and recover – from suicide attempts: A relational and gendered account
Ridge, D., Smith, H., Fixsen, A. M., Broom, A. F., & Oliffe, J. L. (2020) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.13216 · Cited by 23
“Some men saw suicide as an escape from self-hatred (Baumeister, 1990), and self-hatred is also a risk factor identified in the interpersonal model.”
Background
Black Youth’s Experiences With Feelings of Worthlessness, Parent Relationships, and Suicide: Findings From a National Probability Survey
Goodwill, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.12.141 · Cited by 21
Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy on impulsivity and suicidality among clients with bipolar disorders: a randomized control trial
El‐Sayed, M. M., Elhay, E. S. A., Taha, S. M., Khedr, M. A., Mansour, F. S. A., & El‐Ashry, A. M. (2023) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-023-01443-1 · Cited by 26
“Some of the most common psychological frameworks used to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include pain escape as a critical factor [34].”
Background
An examination of the mediating role of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in the complex relationship between interpersonal needs and suicidal behavior
Ranjbar, H. A., Bakhshesh-Boroujeni, M., Niri, S. F., Hekmati, I., Habibi, M., & Eskin, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1301695 · Cited by 23
“Recognizing their shortcomings leads to negative emotional responses, prompting a desire to avoid both self-awareness and the emotional distress it entails (49).”
Background
The Temporal Association Between Self‐Injurious Thoughts and Psychotic Symptoms: A Mobile Phone Assessment Study
Palmier‐Claus, J. E., Taylor, P. J., Ainsworth, J. D., Machin, M., Dunn, G., & Lewis, S. W. (2013) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12064 · Cited by 21
Obsessive Compulsive Symptom Dimensions and Suicide: The Moderating Role of Anxiety Sensitivity Cognitive Concerns
Raines, A. M., Capron, D. W., Bontempo, A. C., Dane, B. F., & Schmidt, N. B. (2014) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-014-9622-z · Cited by 21
“Similar to Baumeister’s escape theory of suicide (Baumeister 1990), it has been suggested that these distressing thoughts coupled with high levels of negative affect may lead one to consider suicide as a possible solution to escape from the escalating pain and suffering (Balci and Sevincok 2010).”
Background
Adolescent Suicide Triggered by Problems at School in Korea: Analyses Focusing on Depression, Suicidal Ideation, Plan, and Attempts as Four Dimensions of Suicide
Park, J. Y., & Chung, I. (2013) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-013-9197-3 · Cited by 21
“The fact that depression is the first symptom leading to suicide can be explained by the escape theory of suicide (Baumeister 1990), which outlines the changes in each dimension of suicide.”
Background
The mirror effect: Self-awareness alone increases suicide thought accessibility
Selimbegović, L., & Chatard, A. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.04.014 · Cited by 22
“In what follows, we outline how recent research building on escape theory (Baumeister, 1990) provides ground for a hypothesis that incidental exposure to one’s mirror image might suffice to increase the accessibility of the most radical means to escape the self: suicide.”
BackgroundInfluential
Suicide and Perfectionism: A Psychological Autopsy Study of Non-Clinical Suicides
Kiamanesh, P., Dyregrov, K., Haavind, H., & Dieserud, G. (2014) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.2190/om.69.4.c · Cited by 22
“This may have played a significant part in precipitating (Blatt, 1995) or initiating (Baumeister, 1990) the suicide.”
Background
A Social Exclusion Manipulation Interacts with Acquired Capability for Suicide to Predict Self-Aggressive Behaviors
Hames, J. L., Rogers, M. L., Silva, C., Ribeiro, J. D., Teale, N. E., & Joiner, T. E. (2017) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2017.1304309 · Cited by 28
“Unlike its predecessors, including the escape (Baumeister, 1990) and psychache (Shneidman, 1993) theories of suicide, and 32 many other identified risk factors for suicide (e.g., depression, hopelessness; (Beck, Steer, Kovacs, & Garrison, 1985; Hawton, Casañas i Comabella, Haw, & Saunders, 2013),…”
Background
Epidemiological evidence on the link between drug use and suicidal behaviors among adolescents.
Wilcox, H. C. (2004) · PubMed Central · Cited by 21
Taking an inside view: Stories of pain.
Orbach, I. (2011) · Building a therapeutic alliance with the suicidal patient. · doi:10.1037/12303-007 · Cited by 20
Abstract
(2003) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/1540-5834.00246 · Cited by 522
“Baumeister (1990), for example, in reviewing much of the earlier literature, reports that persons who exhibit selfdestructive tendencies also commonly demonstrate a kind of temporal tunnel vision (Schneidman, 1985), or foreshortening of their sense of connectedness in time—a sense that leaves them poorly prepared to p…”
Detecting Low Self-Esteem in Youths from Web Search Data
Zaman, A., Acharyya, R., Kautz, H., & Silenzio, V. (2019) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3308558.3313557 · Cited by 20
“Due to the complex nature of mental health and various factors associated to it, identifying individuals who are at risk or need help has been a challenge in the mental health research community [4, 8, 45].”
Background
Ambient Discrimination, Victimization, and Suicidality in a Non-Probability U.S. Sample of LGBTQ Adults
Peterson, A. L., Bender, A. M., Sullivan, B., & Karver, M. S. (2021) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-020-01888-4 · Cited by 24
“One explanation for this could be that individuals who experience direct discrimination may feel a greater need to escape their situation compared to those experiencing ambient trauma, and suicidality has been posited to be a means of escape (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Can HRM predict mental health crises? Using HR analytics to unpack the link between employment and suicidal thoughts and behaviors
Hastuti, R., & Timming, A. R. (2022) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-05-2021-0343 · Cited by 20
Exploring risk factors and their differences on suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among depressed adolescents based on decision tree model
Wang, Y., Liu, J. Y., Chen, S., Zheng, C., Zou, X., & Zhou, Y. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.035 · Cited by 23
Psychological maltreatment, meaning-centered coping, psychological flexibility, and suicide cognitions: A moderated mediation model
Türk, N., Arslan, G., Kaya, A., Güç, E., & Turan, M. E. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106735 · Cited by 20
Suicidal imagery, history of suicidality, and acquired capability in young adults
Holaday, T. C., & Brausch, A. M. (2015) · Journal of Aggression Conflict and Peace Research · doi:10.1108/jacpr-10-2014-0146 · Cited by 20
Preliminary Results From an Examination of Episodic Planning in Suicidal Behavior
Anestis, M. D., Pennings, S. M., & Williams, T. J. (2014) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000250 · Cited by 21
“Several theoretical models conceptualize suicidal behavior as an outcome that frequently (although far from exclusively) occurs explosively, either in response to cognitive states (e.g., aversive self-awareness; Baumeister, 1990), a general tendency to act without planning (e.”
Background
Suicidal Ideation Is Associated With HIV Transmission Risk in Men Who Have Sex With Men
Carrico, A. W., Neilands, T. B., & Johnson, M. O. (2010) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0b013e3181da1270 · Cited by 20
Understanding the Role of Chaplains in Veteran Suicide Prevention Efforts
Kopacz, M. S., O’Reilly, L. M., Inwagen, C. C. V., Bleck-Doran, T. L., Smith, W. D., & Cornell, N. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014553589 · Cited by 20
“A newfound sense of religious and/or spiritual well-being, based on a renewed sense of meaning and purpose, may help the atrisk Veteran to better deal with his or her difficult circumstances (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Bridging the Gap: Connecting Resident Assistants and Suicidal Residents Through Gatekeeper Training
McLean, K. E., & Becker, M. A. S. (2017) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12348 · Cited by 20
“While the central focus of college counseling centers tends to lie in clinical intervention, focusing some resources to early detection and treatment of student mental health issues may help counseling centers treat more students as they shift from the time-intensive and difficult work of crisis intervention toward he…”
Background
A Preliminary Study on the Effectiveness of the Peer Relationship Enhancement Program in Adolescents at Risk for Internet and Smartphone Addiction
Kim, T., Jun, Y., Shin, Y.-T., Lim, S., & Seo, J.-W. (2018) · Journal of korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.5765/jkacap.2018.29.2.40 · Cited by 20
Children’s Self-Esteem and Problematic Smartphone Use: The Moderating Effect of Family Rituals
Kim, D., & Jahng, K. E. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01526-1 · Cited by 23
“The discrepancy between the actual self and standards adversely affects children’s self-esteem (Baumeister 1990) and creates defection-related emotions (Kupersmidt et al. 1996).”
BackgroundInfluential
Prediction and network modelling of self-harm through daily self-report and history of self-injury
Kyron, M. J., Hooke, G. R., & Page, A. C. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720000744 · Cited by 22
“represent a desire to escape from psychological pain, and therefore it is unsurprising that the association between these variables was stronger in the current study (Baumeister, 1990).”
Result
I Would Rather Just Go Through With It Than Be Called a Wussy
Meissner, B. L., Bantjes, J. R., & Kagee, A. (2015) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988314568183 · Cited by 20
Peer Victimization and Adolescent Suicide: The Mediating Effect of Risk Behaviors
Moon, S.-S., Karlson, A., & Kim, Y. (2014) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-014-0365-1 · Cited by 1
A theoretical model of adolescent suicide risk
Metha, A., Chen, E. Y. H., Mulvenon, S. W., & Dode, I. (1998) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811119808260442 · Cited by 20
Impulse control difficulties while distressed: A facet of emotion dysregulation links to Non-Suicidal Self-Injury among psychiatric inpatients at military treatment facilities
Baer, M. M., LaCroix, J. M., Browne, J. C., Hassen, H. O., Perera, K. U., Soumoff, A., Weaver, J., & Ghahramanlou-Holloway, M. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.08.082 · Cited by 18
Negative self-appraisal: Personal reasons for dying as indicators of suicidality
Madsen, J., & Harris, K. M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246341 · Cited by 19
Social anxiety symptoms and their relationship with suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms in adolescents: A prospective study
Chiu, K., Stringaris, A. K., & Leigh, E. (2024) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.12249 · Cited by 22
Exploring dissociation as a facilitator of suicide risk: A translational investigation using virtual reality
Caulfield, N. M., Karnick, A. T., & Capron, D. W. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.097 · Cited by 23
Cognitive Flexibility and Impulsivity Deficits in Suicidal Adolescents
MacPherson, H. A., Kim, K. L., Seymour, K. E., Wolff, J. C., Esposito-Smythers, C. L., Spirito, A., & Dickstein, D. P. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-022-00952-y · Cited by 19
“According to the cognitive model of suicide (Wenzel & Beck, 2008) and other escape theories of suicide (Baumeister, 1990; Linehan, 1993), when negative life events generate emotional distress in the context of poor cognitive control, such individuals may become preoccupied with suicide as their…”
MethodInfluential
Uncovering the heterogeneous effects of depression on suicide risk conditioned by linguistic features: A double machine learning approach
Li, S., Pan, W., YIP, P. S. F., Wang, J., Zhou, W., & Zhu, T. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.108080 · Cited by 19
Psychological vulnerability, emotional problems, and quality-of-life: Validation of the brief suicide cognitions scale for Turkish college students
Arslan, G., Türk, N., & Kaya, A. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-05913-w · Cited by 19
“These factors have been identified and explained through various suicide models and approaches (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Schneidman, 1998; Van Orden et al., 2010).”
Use of the Suicide Status Form-II to investigate correlates of suicide risk factors in psychiatrically hospitalized children and adolescents
Romanowicz, M., O’Connor, S. S., Schak, K. M., Swintak, C. C., & Lineberry, T. W. (2013) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.06.026 · Cited by 19
“, 1985, 1989; Beck, 1986) and Self-Hate is linked to Baumeister's conceptualization of suicide (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Investigating the Interaction Between Sleep Symptoms of Arousal and Acquired Capability in Predicting Suicidality
Hochard, K. D., Heym, N., & Townsend, E. (2016) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12285 · Cited by 20
“This provides further indirect support for the IPTS over Escape Theory, much as in several recent studies (Hochard et al., 2015; Ribeiro, Bender, et al., 2014; Ribeiro, Silva, et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluential
Discriminating Power of Suicidal Ideation by Life Stress, Coping Strategy, and Depression in College Students
Sohn, J. N. (2007) · Journal of Korean Academy of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.12934/jkpmhn.2007.16.3.267 · Cited by 19
Psychological pain and depression: it’s hard to speak when it hurts
Richard‐Devantoy, S., Bertrand, J., Béziat, S., Jaussent, I., Cazals, A., Ducasse, D., Greenway, K. T., Guillaume, S., Courtet, P., & Olié, É. (2020) · International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2020.1836225 · Cited by 19
Terror Suicide: How Is It Possible?
Orbach, I. (2004) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/138111104902343787 · Cited by 19
“Many have addressed the issue of facilitating processes being the mediators between suffering and the materialization of self-destructive acts, including Shneidman (1980) with the concept of tunnel vision, Baumeister (1990) with the concept of cognitive deconstruction, and Maltsberger (1993) through the concept of con…”
Background
Borderline Personality Features Moderate Emotion Reactivity and Emotion Regulation in Response to a Fear Stressor
Chapman, A. L., Dixon–Gordon, K. L., & Walters, K. N. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.031612 · Cited by 23
“Linehan has further suggested that persons with BPD have difficulty up- and down-regulating emotional arousal; thus, such individuals often engage in self-destructive behaviors that function to regulate overwhelming emotions, including self-harm (Chapman, Specht, & Cellucci, 2005), suicide attempts (Baumeister, 1990),…”
Background
Symmetric mortality and asymmetric suicide cycles
Wu, W.-C., & Cheng, H.-P. (2010) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.01.052 · Cited by 19
“Baumeister (1990) proposes the escape theory to explain self-destructive behaviors.”
Background
Postdischarge suicide: A psychodynamic understanding of subjective experience and its importance in suicide prevention
Schechter, M., Goldblatt, M. J., Ronningstam, E. F., Herbstman, B., & Maltsberger, J. T. (2016) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc.2016.80.1.80 · Cited by 20
Forgiveness, perfectionism, and the role of self-compassion
Mistler, B. A. (2010) · University of Florida Digital Collections (University of Florida) · Cited by 18
It’s the thought that counts: belief in suicide as an escape moderates the relationship between emotion dysregulation and suicidal ideation cross-sectionally and longitudinally
Al-Dajani, N., Uliaszek, A. A., & Hamdullahpur, K. (2019) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-019-0112-5 · Cited by 18
Exploring the impact of the physical conditions of mannequin displays on mental simulation: An embodied cognition theory perspective
Yim, M. Y., Lee, J., & Jeong, H. (2020) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102332 · Cited by 18
Suicidal Ideation and Spirituality of College Students
Choi, S.-O., & Kim, S.-N. (2011) · The Journal of Korean Academic Society of Nursing Education · doi:10.5977/jkasne.2011.17.2.190 · Cited by 18
A Mixed Methods Approach to Identify Cognitive Warning Signs for Suicide Attempts
Adler, A., Bush, A., Barg, F. K., Weissinger, G., Beck, A. T., & Brown, G. K. (2016) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2015.1136717 · Cited by 18
ASSISTED-SUICIDE TOURISM: IS IT TOURISM?
Higginbotham, G. (2021) · University of the Aegean · doi:10.26215/tourismos.v6i2.226 · Cited by 18
Suicidal Impulse caused by Stress in Korea : Focusing on mediational effects of Existent spirituality, Family Support, and Depression
박재연, Yoon, H., & 임연옥 (2010) · Korean Journal of Social Welfare Studies · doi:10.16999/kasws.2010.41.4.81 · Cited by 18
Modeling the Longitudinal Effects of Insight on Depression, Quality of Life and Suicidality in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: Results from the FACE-SZ Cohort
Ehrminger, M., Urbach, M., Passerieux, C., Aouizerate, B., Berna, F. S., Bohec, A.-L., Capdevielle, D., Chéreau, I., Clauss, J. M. E., Dubertret, C., et al. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8081196 · Cited by 18
“According to this theory, the relationship between QoL and suicidality is direct, but also indirect “via negative affect, especially depression and anxiety” [50].”
Background
Tolerance for Mental Pain Scale (TMPS): Italian validation and evaluation of its protective role in depression and suicidal ideation
Landi, G., Furlani, A., Boccolini, G., Mikulincer, M., Grandi, S., & Tossani, E. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113263 · Cited by 18
Past-Year Suicidal Ideation Among Transgender Individuals in the United States
Yockey, R. A., King, K. A., & Vidourek, R. A. (2020) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2020.1803165 · Cited by 18
“Baumeister (1990) posited individuals attempt suicide as a way to “escape” the self or current stressful situations.”
Background
Investigation to identify individual socioeconomic and health determinants of suicidal ideation using responses to a cross-sectional, community-based public health survey
Mulholland, H., McIntyre, J. C., Haines‐Delmont, A., Whittington, R., Comerford, T., & Corcoran, R. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035252 · Cited by 18
Emotional mental imagery generation during spontaneous future thinking: relationship with optimism and negative mood
Ji, J. L., Murphy, F. C., Grafton, B., MacLeod, C., & Holmes, E. A. (2021) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-021-01501-w · Cited by 22
Suicide Ideation and Deliberate Self-Harm among Ex-Prisoners of War
Levi‐Belz, Y., Zerach, G., & Solomon, Z. (2014) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2013.845123 · Cited by 19
“Baumeister (1990), for example, views suicidal behavior in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness.”
Background
Validation of the Orbach & Mikulincer Mental Pain Scale (OMMP) on a drug addicted population
Guimarães, R., Fleming, M., & Cardoso, M. F. (2013) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0751-6 · Cited by 18
“For Baumeister [24] mental pain corresponds to an aversive state of mind caused by the discrepancy between the actual and ideal self.”
Background
Characteristics of an Effective Internal Dialogue in the Acquisition of Self-Information
Morin, A. (1995) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.2190/7jx3-4ekr-0be5-t8fc · Cited by 18
Hostility in Homicide–Suicide Events: A Typological Analysis with Data from a Chinese Society, Hong Kong, 1989–2003
Chan, C. Y. (2007) · Asian Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11417-007-9031-2 · Cited by 18
A Descriptive Study of Feelings of Arrested Escape (Entrapment) and Arrested Anger in People Presenting to an Emergency Department Following an Episode of Self-Harm
Clarke, M., McEwan, K., Ness, J., Waters, K., Basran, J. K., & Gilbert, P. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00155 · Cited by 19
“Our data suggest that it is not only feeling trapped in, and angry with, outside situations or people, but also with one’s own thoughts and sense of self; the notion of escape from oneself, or at least one’s thoughts and feelings is supported here (28, 29).”
BackgroundInfluential
The interactive effect of cultural self-construal and social exclusion on consumers' impression management goal pursuit
Wang, J. J., & Lalwani, A. K. (2019) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.02.069 · Cited by 18
Associations Between Symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder, Externalizing Disorders, and Suicide-Related Behaviors
James, L. M., & Taylor, J. E. (2008) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-007-9074-9 · Cited by 18
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Severity and Emotion Regulation in Acute-Care Psychiatric Inpatients: Associations With Suicidality
Martin, C., Vujanovic, A., & Day, S. X. (2017) · Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1341443 · Cited by 17
“Individuals who feel especially overwhelmed and unable to regulate distressing emotions (i.e., those with PTSD symptoms) may be at increased risk of viewing suicide as a way to escape these feelings (Baumeister, 1990;Miranda, Tsypes, Gallagher, & Rajappa, 2013).”
Background
Decomposing implicit associations about life and death improves our understanding of suicidal behavior
O’Shea, B. A., Glenn, J. J., Millner, A. J., Teachman, B. A., & Nock, M. K. (2020) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12652 · Cited by 22
“…what distinguishes suicide attempters from nonattempters is a reduced identification of “Me” with “Life,” which indicates that a diminished desire to live or a need to escape intolerable aspects of life (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Shneidman, 1985) appears to be crucial for suicide attempters.”
Background
Reducing suicide risk in parentally bereaved youth through promoting effective parenting: testing a developmental cascade model
Zhang, N., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J., & Wolchik, S. A. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421001474 · Cited by 19
“The finding on aversive self-views is also consistent with the escape theory of suicide (Baumeister, 1990) which proposes that suicidal behavior is an attempt to escape from aversive affect caused by negative attributions about the self and being unable to block out awareness of negative self-views.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Problematic Use of the Internet Mediates the Association between Reduced Mentalization and Suicidal Ideation: A Cross-Sectional Study in Young Adults
Bersani, F. S., Accinni, T., Carbone, G. A., Corazza, O., Panno, A., Prevete, E., Bernabei, L., Massullo, C., Burkauskas, J., Tarsitani, L., et al. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10050948 · Cited by 21
“Theories, in fact, have postulated that suicidal behaviors can serve as means to escape from aversive self-awareness [3] and that they are forms of maladaptive responses to stressful situations characterized by the presence of feelings of defeat and of the perception of no escape and no rescue [4,5].”
Background
Patients at risk of suicide and their meaning in life experiences
Søberg, A. I. B., Danbolt, L. J., Sørensen, T., & Haug, S. H. K. (2022) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1177/00846724221137620 · Cited by 17
“As a result, they may contemplate suicide as a means of escaping their torments (Baumeister, 1990; Vatne & Naaden, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Longitudinal Impact of Perfectionism on Suicidal Ideation among Chinese College Students with Perceived Academic Failure: The Roles of Rumination and Depression
Liu, L., Wang, W., Lian, Y., Wu, X., Li, C., & Qiao, Z. (2023) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2023.2237088 · Cited by 17
“Therefore, according to the escape theory of suicide, individuals might also be eager to escape the sense of failure (Beekman et al., 2001; Baumeister, 1990).”
A Systematic Review of MRI Studies and the “Emotional paiN and social Disconnect (END)” Brain Model of Suicidal Behavior in Youth
Tymofiyeva, O., Reeves, K. W., Shaw, C., Lopez, E., Aziz, S., Max, J. E., & Yang, T. T. (2023) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2023/7254574 · Cited by 19
“This idea was then corroborated by the escape theory of suicide, which hypothesized the same idea that suicidal thoughts are utilized in order to escape mental anguish [34].”
The temporal relationship between marriage and risk for suicidal ideation
Stephenson, M. E., Prom‐Wormley, E. C., Lannoy, S., & Edwards, A. C. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.10.007 · Cited by 17
Effect of Self-awareness on Negative Affect Among Individuals with Discrepant Low Self-esteem
Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Chartrand, T. L. (2011) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.567022 · Cited by 17
“The latter prediction is in line with evidence that depressed individuals with discrepant low selfesteem are more likely to engage in suicidal ideation (Franck, De Raedt, Dereu, et al., 2007; see Baumeister, 1990, for a discussion of the escape theory of suicide).”
Result
Shame and Psychotherapy: Theory, Method and Practice
Sinha, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53100-7_11 · Cited by 17
Gender differences in psychological distress as a mediational pathway to suicidal ideation among adolescents at high risk for victimization by violence.
Cromer, K. D., Villodas, M. T., & Chou, T. (2018) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000200 · Cited by 18
Future-Oriented Constructs and Their Role in Suicidal Ideation and Enactment
Kirtley, O. J., Melson, A. J., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018) · Advances in mental health and addiction · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-03225-8_2 · Cited by 17
Positive and Existential Psychological Approaches to the Experience of Meaning in Life
Kim, J., Seto, E., Davis, W. E., & Hicks, J. A. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0308-5_13 · Cited by 21
Daily hassles and suicide ideation in African-American female suicide attempters: moderating effect of spiritual well-being
Hirsch, J. K., Webb, J. R., & Kaslow, N. J. (2013) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674676.2013.858682 · Cited by 18
“Suicidal individuals, from an existential perspective, are often ambivalent about the choice to take their own life and their lives may seem to lack meaning and purpose (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Female adolescents' suicidal behavior and mothers' ways of coping
Israelashvili, M., Gilad-Osovitzki, S., & Asherov, J. (2006) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638230600902567 · Cited by 17
“For example, it has been suggested that a mother’s reluctance to use problem-focused ways of coping would be an antecedent of her child’s tendency to escape coping through the use of suicidal behavior (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
The Sexual Harassment–Suicide Connection in the U.S. Military: Contextual Effects of Hostile Work Environment and Trusted Unit Leaders
Griffith, J. E. (2017) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12401 · Cited by 17
“These psychological states are often comorbid conditions of suicide risk (Nock et al., 2014), and some have proposed suicidal behavior provides a means for the individual to escape these emotions (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Self-oriented Perfectionism and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism Add Incrementally to the Prediction of Suicide Ideation Beyond Hopelessness: A Meta-Analysis of 15 Studies
Smith, M. M., Vidovic, V., Sherry, S., & Saklofske, D. H. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4816-6_19 · Cited by 18
“And perceiving a discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self is unpleasant and can lead to consideration of suicide as a means of escaping aversive self-awareness (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Writing a Literature Review
Baumeister, R. F. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0099-5_5 · Cited by 17
Self-citation
Rejection: Resolving the Paradox of Emotional Numbness after Exclusion
DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Masicampo, E. J. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511770548.008 · Cited by 17
Self-citation
Dysphoria and components of self-punitiveness: A re-analysis
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Mittelstaedt, W. M. (1991) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01173014 · Cited by 17
When being imperfect just won't do: Exploring the relationship between perfectionism, emotion dysregulation, and suicidal ideation
Zeifman, R. J., Antony, M. M., & Kuo, J. R. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109612 · Cited by 18
The Architecture of Blame and Praise
SHOEMAKER, D. W. (2024) · doi:10.1093/9780198915867.001.0001 · Cited by 16

Authors: Baumeister, R. F.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
Corresponding author: Baumeister, Roy F.
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1990
Volume: 97
Issue: 1
Pages: 90-113
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.97.1.90
OpenAlex: W2098559214
Cited by: 1,919
References: 212
Citations by year: 2026: 91 · 2025: 137 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 88 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 92 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 67
FWCI: 13.21
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Disorders
Keywords: suicide, self-awareness, negative affect, internal attribution, self-justification, disinhibition, irrationality, meaning, temporal focus, concrete thinking, cognitive rigidity
MeSH terms: Depressive Disorder, Escape Reaction, Humans, Self Concept, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Suicide as escape from self.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks