The DOI matches its Crossref record; 210 of the 212 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Suicide as escape from self.
Abstract
Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness. The causal chain begins with events that fall severely short of standards and expectations. These failures are attributed internally, which makes self-awareness painful. Awareness of the self's inadequacies generates negative affect, and the individual therefore desires to escape from self-awareness and the associated affect. The person tries to achieve a state of cognitive deconstruction (constricted temporal focus, concrete thinking, immediate or proximal goals, cognitive rigidity, and rejection of meaning), which helps prevent meaningful self-awareness and emotion. The deconstructed state brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable. Suicide can be seen as an ultimate step in the effort to escape from self and world.
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“Some of the behavioral manifestations found in previous research are avoidance (Moskalenko and Heine 2003), self-harm (Baumeister 1990; Morin and Craig 2000), increased emotional intensity (Silvia 2002), and -particularly pertinent to our research -self-regulation (Bandura 1978; Carver and Scheier 2004; Kanfer 1977).”
From Paradoxical effects of self-awareness of being observed: testing the effect of police body-worn cameras on assaults and aggression against officers (2018) · cites this paper as Baumeister 1990
In the citing paper
“Some of the predominant psychological frameworks that attempt to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include escape from pain as a key factor [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Accepting reality and reducing avoidance are fundamental aims of ACT, and this therapeutic work is aligned with the theories of suicide that focus on an individual’s sense of entrapment and/or desire to escape their current reality [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
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Recent Suicidality in the General Population
Briere, J., Madni, L. A., & Godbout, N. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515584339 · Cited by 28
“Others hypothesize that suicidality can serve as a way to avoid or reduce abuse-related dysphoria and posttraumatic stress (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Briere, Hodges, & Godbout, 2010; Wilcox, Storr, & Breslau, 2009).”
BackgroundDevelopmental perspectives on vulnerability to nonsuicidal self-injury in youth
Barrocas, A. L., Jenness, J. L., Davis, T. S., Oppenheimer, C. W., Technow, J. R., Gulley, L. D., Badanes, L. S., & Hankin, B. L. (2011) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386491-8.00008-6 · Cited by 28
“For example, in his escape theory, Baumeister (1990) proposed that suicidal behavior serves to relieve internal distress, which can be applied to NSSI.”
BackgroundThe Role of Perfectionism in Student Suicide: Three Case Studies from the UK
Bell, J., Stanley, N., Mallon, S. D., & Manthorpe, J. (2010) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.2190/om.61.3.e · Cited by 32
“…the debilitating nature of perfectionism, arguing that perfectionism is associated with a significant number of psychological problems; and Blatt (1995) referred to the maladaptive functions of perfectionism, including depression (Blatt & Zuroff, 1992) and suicidal behavior (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundAn urge to jump affirms the urge to live: An empirical examination of the high place phenomenon
Hames, J. L., Ribeiro, J. D., Smith, A. R., & Joiner, T. E. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.035 · Cited by 28
Suicide Attempts Among Individuals With Specific Learning Disorders: An Underrecognized Issue
Fuller‐Thomson, E., Carroll, S. Z., & Yang, W. (2017) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219417714776 · Cited by 28
““Escape theory” proposes that as youth with reading disabilities face challenges in school and perform below the standards, they begin to view themselves in negative ways, blaming themselves and labeling themselves as lazy or stupid (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundCrawford, E. A., Burke, T. A., Siegel, D., Jager‐Hyman, S., Alloy, L. B., & Kendall, P. C. (2018) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12479 · Cited by 28
Reexamining the Mental Pain–Suicidality Link in Adolescence: The Role of Tolerance for Mental Pain
Becker, G., Orbach, I., Mikulincer, M., Iohan, M., Gilboa‐Schechtman, E., & Grossman‐Giron, A. (2018) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12506 · Cited by 29
Psychometric evaluation of the Tolerance for Mental Pain Scale in United States adults
Meerwijk, E. L., Mikulincer, M., & Weiss, S. J. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.01.101 · Cited by 28
“…could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript the ability to endure psychological pain and is central to many suicide theories (Baumeister, 1990; Leenaars, 1996; Maltsberger, 2004; Shneidman, 1993).”
BackgroundLee, J., & Pak, T. (2022) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101231 · Cited by 28
“These include demographic, socioeconomic, health and well-being, and early life characteristics of participants and their households that are likely to be correlated with suicidal risk as predicted by underlying theories (Baumeister, 1990; Shneidman, 1993).”
BackgroundXie, Y., Yang, Q., & Lei, F. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20043375 · Cited by 36
“Moreover, according to the escape theory of suicide, the purpose of suicide is to escape from unbearable emotions or thoughts [18].”
BackgroundXiong, A., Liao, S., Luo, B., Luo, S., Tong, Y., & Zhao, L. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107808 · Cited by 28
Emotions and Suicidal Ideation among Depressed Women with Childhood Sexual Abuse Histories
You, S., Talbot, N. L., He, H., & Conner, K. R. (2012) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.2012.00086.x · Cited by 28
Lau, R., Morse, C. A., & Macfarlane, S. (2010) · Journal of Women & Aging · doi:10.1080/08952840903488831 · Cited by 28
“Suicidal attempts or thoughts have been identified as prime aspects that characterize a person’s desires to “escape from themself” (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundLevi‐Belz, Y., Gvion, Y., Grisaru, S., & Apter, A. (2017) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2017.1355288 · Cited by 28
“Baumeister (1990) had already suggested that mental pain induces mental constriction and tunnel vision, leading individuals to perceive suicide as the only solution to an unbearable state of being (Baumeister, 1990; Orbach, 2001; Shneidman, 1993).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWomen sexually abused as children: The centrality of shame issues and treatment implications.
Talbot, N. L. (1996) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.33.1.11 · Cited by 28
Cornette, M. M., Abramson, L. Y., & Bardone, A. M. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47233-3_5 · Cited by 28
Cheng, Y., Zhao, W.-W., Chen, S.-Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.727663 · Cited by 26
“In agreement, the motivation to escape from painful self-awareness has been emphasized in Baumeister’s escape theory of suicide (12).”
BackgroundShelef, L., Fruchter, E., Mann, J. J., & Yacobi, A. (2014) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.01.006 · Cited by 30
“The ability to regulate negative emotions plays an important role in the cognitive-deficit theory [12,3].”
BackgroundLow self‐esteem, entrapment, and reason for living: A moderated mediation model of suicidal ideation
Ren, Y., You, J., Lin, M., & Xu, S. (2018) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12532 · Cited by 29
Landrault, H., Jaafari, N., Amine, M., Malka, G., Selimbegović, L., & Chatard, A. (2019) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12578 · Cited by 27
Song, H. S., & Bae, S. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00345-6 · Cited by 28
“According to the escape theory of suicide (Baumeister 1990), individuals experience frustration when they fail to fulfill their expectations.”
BackgroundRojas, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640211036166 · Cited by 29
Gratz, K. L., Kiel, E. J., Mann, A. J., & Tull, M. T. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.06.066 · Cited by 30
Stenseng, F., Steinsholt, I. B., Hygen, B. W., & Kraft, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035196 · Cited by 27
“With this ability for selfhood, it follows that our failures and losses also may be scrutinized in hindsight, which may lead to considerable distress, and when becoming disturbing to an intolerable extent, even lead people into suicidal behavior (Baumeister, 1990; Vohs and Baumeister, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGordon, K. H., Simonich, H. K., Wonderlich, S. A., Dhankikar, S., Crosby, R. D., Cao, L., Kwan, M. Y., Mitchell, J. E., & Engel, S. G. (2015) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12172 · Cited by 26
“These aversive, intense affective states may lead to a desire for suicide, which may be viewed as an escape from unbearable emotional pain (Baumeister, 1990).”
The production of pro-suicide content on the internet: A counter-discourse activity
Westerlund, M. (2011) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444811425221 · Cited by 27
Suicide Trends According to Age, Gender, and Marital Status in South Korea
Kim, J. W., Jung, H. Y., Won, D., Noh, J. H., Shin, Y. S., & Kang, T. I. (2017) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/0030222817715756 · Cited by 27
Schechter, M., Ronningstam, E. F., Herbstman, B., & Goldblatt, M. J. (2019) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina55060303 · Cited by 32
“Baumeister [25] described the suicidal patient as moving into a state of cognitive “deconstruction” (pp.”
BackgroundMindfulness and Suicide Risk in Undergraduates: Exploring the Mediating Effect of Alexithymia
Fang, Y., Zeng, B., Chen, P., Mai, Y., Teng, S., Zhang, M., Zhao, J., Yang, X., & Zhao, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02106 · Cited by 32
“Theories about the potential emotional process of suicide (Baumeister, 1990; Williams, 2001) suggest that alexithymia plays an important role in suicidality.”
BackgroundMethodWang, L. C. (2015) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-015-0575-7 · Cited by 26
“…effects in the field, which has centered on labor supply decisions (Camerer et al. 1997; Farber 2005, 2008; Crawford and Meng 2011) and violence behaviors (Card and Dahl 2011) and link the economics literature with the escape theory of suicide by Baumeister (1990) in the psychology literature.”
Do You See What I See? Patient and Clinician Perceptions of Underlying Dimensions of Suicidality
Eddins, C. L., & Jobes, D. A. (1994) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1994.tb00800.x · Cited by 27
Toward the Prevention of Adolescent Internet Addiction
Kwon, J. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118013991.ch13 · Cited by 26
Stenseng, F. (2009) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 27
Gendered Endings: Narratives of Male and Female Suicides in the South African Lowveld
Niehaus, I. (2012) · Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-012-9258-y · Cited by 26
“Baumeister (1990) and Shneidman (1993) suggest that escape from a negative self and from psychological pain is common in all forms of suicide.”
BackgroundPsychometric evaluation of the body investment scale for use with adolescents
Osman, A., Gutierrez, P. M., Schweers, R., Fang, Q., Holguin‐Mills, R. L., & Cashin, M. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20649 · Cited by 25
A Note on Shneidman's Psychological Pain Assessment Scale
Leenaars, A. A., & Lester, D. (2005) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.2190/wh9x-80m3-nj54-5gcu · Cited by 26
“It is perhaps true to say that suicidal individuals are experiencing psychological distress or suffering and that suicide may be, at least in part, an attempt to escape from this suffering (Baumeister, 1990; Murray, 1967).”
BackgroundViolent obsessions are associated with suicidality in an OCD analog sample of college students
Ching, T. H. W., Williams, M. T., & Siev, J. (2016) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2016.1228084 · Cited by 26
“Suicide may then be considered as an option for escape when distress overwhelms an individual’s ability to cope (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundMcNulty, J. K., Olson, M. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000180 · Cited by 27
“…spontaneous and effortless; see Bryan, Rudd, Wertenberger, 2013; Chioqueta & Stiles, 2007; Nock & Banaji, 2007; Nock & Kazdin, 2002) and have affective properties (see Baumeister, 1990; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Hendin, 1991; Joiner, 2005; Joiner et al., 2009; Van Orden et al., 2010; Zajonc, 1980).”
Domestic violence and suicide attempts among married women: A case–control study
Rahmani, F., Salmasi, S., Rahmani, F., Bird, J., Asghari, E., Robai, N., Jafarabadi, M. A., & Gholizadeh, L. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.14901 · Cited by 31
Stewart, J. G., Polanco-Roman, L. A., Duarte, C. S., & Auerbach, R. P. (2019) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-019-00194-1 · Cited by 31
Kuffel, R. L., Morin, R. T., Covinsky, K. E., Boscardin, W. J., Lohman, M. C., Li, Y., & Byers, A. L. (2023) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.5144 · Cited by 27
Mean on the Screen: Social Aggression in Programs Popular With Children
Martins, N., & Wilson, B. J. (2012) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01599.x · Cited by 26
Self-Love or Other-Love? Explicit Other-Preference but Implicit Self-Preference
Gebauer, J. E., Göritz, A. S., Hofmann, W., & Sedikides, C. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041789 · Cited by 27
“For example, humans seek self-awareness in positive situations, but avoid self-awareness in negative situations [9].”
BackgroundAnestis, M. D., & Capron, D. W. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.044 · Cited by 26
“In some ways, our findings are counter intuitive, as several theories of suicide conceptualize suicide itself as a form of escape (e.g., Baumeister, 1990).”
ResultHow Behavioral Economics and Nudges Could Help Diminish Irrationality in Suicide-Related Decisions
Bauer, B. W., & Capron, D. W. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619866463 · Cited by 26
“…suicidal theories such as hopelessness (three-step theory, Klonsky & May, 2015; ITS, Van Orden et al., 2010; integrated moti-vational-volitional model, O’Connor, 2011; Weishaar & Beck, 1992) and entrapment (escape theory, Baumeister, 1990; integrated motivational-volitional model, O’Connor, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPalmier‐Claus, J. E., Ainsworth, J. D., Machin, M., Dunn, G., Barkus, E., Barrowclough, C., Rogers, A. E., & Lewis, S. W. (2013) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2013.805647 · Cited by 27
“Psychodynamic accounts also suggest that suicide is a reaction to ones struggle with negative emotions (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAttachment Security and Suicide Ideation and Behaviour: The Mediating Role of Reflective Functioning
Green, J., Berry, K., Danquah, A., & Pratt, D. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18063090 · Cited by 25
Dickter, B., Bunge, E. L., Brown, L. M., Leykin, Y., Soares, E. E., Voorhees, B. W. V., Marko-Holguin, M., & Gladstone, T. R. G. (2019) · mHealth · doi:10.21037/mhealth.2019.04.01 · Cited by 29
“Items used to create the sum score for low self-esteem include those focused on comparison of oneself to others and/or a sense of inadequacy or incompetence (12).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDelay discounting in suicidal behavior: Myopic preference or inconsistent valuation?
Tsypes, A., Szántó, K., Bridge, J. A., Brown, V. M., Keilp, J. G., & Dombrovski, A. Y. (2021) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000717 · Cited by 26
The Psychoanalytic Study of Suicide, Part I: An Integration of Contemporary Theory and Research
Schechter, M., Goldblatt, M., Ronningstam, E., & Herbstman, B. (2022) · Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association · doi:10.1177/00030651221086622 · Cited by 21
Wang, J., Li, M., Geng, J., Wang, H., Nie, J., & Lei, L. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221099495 · Cited by 31
“A significant life is characterized by positive perceptions of, and positive affects, toward oneself (namely, high self-esteem) (Baumeister, 1990; Rosenberg, 1965) which has been found to prevent adolescents from PSU (Kim & Jahng, 2019).”
BackgroundYan, Y., & Gai, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.911502 · Cited by 29
“…approaches that conceptualize suicide as a phenomenon related to the following: psychache (Shneidman, 1993); escape from self-awareness (Baumeister, 1990); hopelessness (Beck et al., 1985); emotion dysregulation (Linehan, 1993); perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, and…”
BackgroundOn the Edge of Destruction: An Impaired-Regulation Model of Destructive Entrepreneurial Action
Shepherd, D. A., Seyb, S., & Souitaris, V. (2022) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063221126710 · Cited by 25
“3 While escaping can be effective in the short run, the continued need to escape can lead to drug use (Patterson, Bennett, & Wiitala, 2005) and even suicide (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundSelf-report measures of defeat and entrapment during a brief depressive mood induction
Goldstein, R. C., & Willner, P. (2002) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930143000473 · Cited by 27
“It is internal failures that typically are associated with pervasive depressed mood, and the pressure to escape from this aversive state may be a major factor motivating suicide attempts (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundMarchand, W. R. (2011) · Depression Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2012/246725 · Cited by 28
“For example, suicide has been posited to serve as an escape from awareness of self [103] and research provides support for this hypothesis [104–106].”
ResultMystical Self Loss: A Challenge for Psychological Theory
Baumeister, R., & Exline, J. J. (2002) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1201_02 · Cited by 25
“Baumeister (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991a) and Heatherton and Baumeister (1991) wrote extensively about how people seek to escape self-awareness by means of masochistic, suicidal, or binge-eating experiences.”
BackgroundSelf-citationWolford‐Clevenger, C., Febres, J., Elmquist, J., Zapor, H., Brasfield, H. M., & Stuart, G. L. (2014) · Psychological Services · doi:10.1037/a0037338 · Cited by 25
“Targeting suicidal ideation has potential for reducing risk for homicide, as research has indicated in murder-suicides, suicidal intent occurs prior to the decision to commit murder, which possibly results from disinhibition that accompanies suicides (Baumeister, 1990; Rhine & Mayerson, 1973).”
BackgroundComorbid panic disorder as an independent risk factor for suicide attempts in depressed outpatients
Nam, Y.-Y., Kim, C., & Roh, D. D. (2016) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.02.011 · Cited by 25
“Suicidal behaviors develop out of an attempt to avoid or escape from a state of aversive self-awareness [38,39].”
BackgroundNielsen, E., Sayal, K. S., & Townsend, E. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14060575 · Cited by 32
“Indeed, depiction of suicidality as an expression of avoidance is arguably congruent with concepts of suicide as escape from negative self-evaluation [3], conceptualization of “egression”—the ultimate escape [4] and the escape drive outlined in the Cry of Pain model [2].”
Yang, X., Daches, S., George, C. J., Kiss, E., Kapornai, K., Baji, I., & Kovács, M. (2019) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13378 · Cited by 27
“According to the emotion-regulation conceptual framework of STBs, suicidal behaviors are the outcomes of high levels of negative affect (mostly depressed, dysphoric mood), which an individual has not been able to control or downregulate (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Linehan, 1993; Shneidman, 1998).”
BackgroundLife course well-being framework for suicide prevention in Canadian Armed Forces Veterans
Thompson, J. M., Heber, A., VanTil, L. D., Simkus, K., Carrese, L., Sareen, J., & Pedlar, D. (2019) · Journal of Military Veteran and Family Health · doi:10.3138/jmvfh.2018-0020 · Cited by 25
Parent-offspring conflict and cost-benefit analysis in adolescent suicidal behavior
Andrews, P. W. (2006) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-006-1017-8 · Cited by 25
“of serotonin or other neurotransmitters (Isacsson and Rich 1997) or the desire to escape depression and other unpleasant feelings ( Baumeister 1990; Schneidman 1993).”
BackgroundThe Role of Self-Esteem in Suicides Among Young Men
Rasmussen, M. L., Dyregrov, K., Haavind, H., Leenaars, A. A., & Dieserud, G. (2015) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/0030222815601514 · Cited by 31
“Thus, a discrepancy between the ideal and actual self is suggested to be of central importance for the suicidal self (Baumeister, 1990; Vohs & Baumeister, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBentley, K. H., Sauer-Zavala, S., Stevens, K. T., & Washburn, J. J. (2020) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2018.09.012 · Cited by 28
Mir, I. A. (2023) · Journal of Internet Commerce · doi:10.1080/15332861.2021.2021582 · Cited by 26
“Self-blaming lowers people’s self-esteem and makes self-awareness painful (Baumeister 1990; Chatard and Selimbegovic 2011).”
BackgroundSense of Coherence and Stress of Clinical Practice in Nursing Students
Lee, E., & Jun, W. H. (2013) · The Journal of Korean Academic Society of Nursing Education · doi:10.5977/jkasne.2013.19.2.163 · Cited by 24
Fulginiti, A., & Brekke, J. S. (2015) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-015-9846-8 · Cited by 26
“Informed by the Escape Theory of Suicide, we investigated the relationship between discrepancy factors, in the form of self-esteem and quality of life (QoL), and suicidal ideation.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDing, C., Zhang, J., & Yang, D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00615 · Cited by 26
“Low self-esteem or self-blame for personal failure or setbacks have been found to be effective in predicting current and future self-harm, suicide ideation, and most suicide attempts (Baumeister, 1990; Bhar et al., 2008; Phillips et al., 2013).”
BackgroundA scoping review of suicidality and alexithymia: The need to consider interoception
Davey, S., Halberstadt, J. B., Bell, E. M., & Collings, S. C. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.06.027 · Cited by 26
“This may relate to suicidality via processes implicated in, for instance, the “escape theory of suicide” (Baumeister, 1990), which advances the view that emotional avoidance leads to a state of deconstructed cognition (e.g. concrete thinking, short-termism and a rejection of meaning), which then…”
Hallford, D. J. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.100 · Cited by 28
Hemming, L., Bhatti, P., Shaw, J. J., Haddock, G., & Pratt, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.581390 · Cited by 24
“Further, Baumeister (41) purports that prior to suicide behavior, an individual refuses meaningful thought through cognitive dissociation that eliminates all emotion, in an attempt to cease feeling negative emotions and escape pain.”
BackgroundJi, X., Zhao, J., Fan, L., Li, H., Lin, P., Zhang, P., Fang, S., Law, S., Yao, S., & Wang, X. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23246 · Cited by 24
Gifuni, A. J., Pereira, F., Chakravarty, M. M., Lepage, M., Chase, H. W., Geoffroy, M., Lacourse, É., Phillips, M. L., Turecki, G., Renaud, J., et al. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02485-w · Cited by 25
“Several theories of suicide recognize that the feeling of social disconnection is an important precipitant of STB [25 – 27].”
A model program for youth suicide prevention
Omar, H. Α. (2005) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh.2005.17.3.267 · Cited by 25
“findings regarding the self-esteem of suicidal adolescents (11,18,19).”
Procrastinators lack a broad action perspective
Dewitte, S., & Lens, W. (2000) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0984(200003/04)14:2 · Cited by 109
Psychoanalytic perspectives on the treatment of an acute suicidal crisis.
Maltsberger, J. T., & Weinberg, I. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20225 · Cited by 22
Escaping the Self Consumes Regulatory Resources: A Self-Regulatory Model of Suicide
Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47233-3_4 · Cited by 24
“negative affect or at least anhedonia is involved (see Baumeister, 1990b; Fawcett, Busch, Jacobs, Kravitz, & Fogg, 1997).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationTreatment of Intrusive Suicidal Imagery Using Eye Movements
van Bentum, J. S., Sijbrandij, M., Huibers, M. J. H., Huisman, A., Arntz, A. R., Holmes, E. A., & Kerkhof, A. J. F. M. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14070714 · Cited by 26
“The Escape Theory is an integrative framework that provides a theoretical model to explain the process through which individuals develop suicidal ideation, ‘with a causal chain characterizing suicide as the final step in self-destructive behavior’ [54].”
InfluentialHarris, T. E., & Lennings, C. J. (1993) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x9303700307 · Cited by 24
Psychosocial risk factors contributing to adolescent suicidal ideation
Harter, S., & Marold, D. B. (1994) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.23219946407 · Cited by 24
Desperate Acts for Desperate Times: Looming Vulnerability and Suicide
Riskind, J. H., Long, D., Williams, N. L., & White, J. C. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47233-3_8 · Cited by 24
“Schneidman (1992), Maris (1992), and Baumeister (1990) have identified escape from psychological pain as one of the most common motives for suicide.”
BackgroundRogerson, O., O’Connor, R. C., & O'Connor, D. B. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.029 · Cited by 24
Qualitative Evidence in Suicide: Findings from Qualitative Psychological Autopsy Studies
Hjelmeland, H., & Knizek, B. L. (2015) · Handbooks in health, work, and disability · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2920-7_21 · Cited by 25
Cheung, V. H. M., Chan, C. Y., & Au, R. K. C. (2018) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/appy.12339 · Cited by 23
“The first stage is associated with the concept of pain, which not only refers to psychological and emotional pain but also to other forms of pain (Mazur, 2012) such as negative self‐perception (Baumeister, 1990); it could be operationalized by measuring an individual's perceived ability to bounce back when faced with…”
BackgroundStoliker, B. E., Verdun‐Jones, S. N., & Vaughan, A. D. (2020) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2020.1738294 · Cited by 23
“Indeed, the vast majority of persons living with a psychiatric disorder do not think about, attempt, or complete suicide (Stanley, Hom, Rogers, Hagan, & Joiner, 2016; see also Baumeister, 1990; Conwell, Duberstein, & Caine, 2002).”
BackgroundMarie, L., Poindexter, E. K., Fadoir, N. A., & Smith, P. N. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.037 · Cited by 24
Rizvi, S. L., & Fitzpatrick, S. (2020) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12691 · Cited by 27
Lu, W., & Keyes, K. M. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115352 · Cited by 23
Occurrence and predictors of lifetime suicidality and suicidal ideation in autistic adults
van Bentum, J. S., Sijbrandij, M., Huibers, M. J. H., & Begeer, S. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231225901 · Cited by 24
“…and difficulties generating alternative solutions to problems in their daily lives (Paquette-Smith et al., 2014; South et al., 2020), leading to feelings of being trapped (Cassidy, Robertson, et al., 2020) and ultimately seeing suicide as the only possible escape (Baumeister, 1990; Ringel, 1976).”
BackgroundØstlie, K., Stänicke, E., & Haavind, H. (2016) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2016.1174347 · Cited by 23
Chen, C., Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.021 · Cited by 23
Impulsivity as a mediator in the relationship between problem solving and suicidal ideation
Gonzalez, V. M., & Neander, L. L. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22618 · Cited by 24
Viewpoint of suicide travel: An exploratory study on YouTube comments
Yu, J., Wen, J., & Yang, S. (2020) · Tourism Management Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2020.100669 · Cited by 23
Ward, T. J., Hudson, S. M., & Marshall, W. L. (1995) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1007/bf02254874 · Cited by 23
The Problem of Self-Continuity in the Context of Rapid Personal and Cultural Change
Chandler, M. J., & Lalonde, C. E. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-0331-2_5 · Cited by 23
“In reviewing evidence of this sort Hendin (1982), along with Baumeister (1990) , concludes that suicidal people may be literally trying to stop time.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFamily Communication, Maternal and Paternal Expectations, and College Students' Suicidality
Miller, M., & Day, L. E. (2002) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1207/s15327698jfc0204_01 · Cited by 22
“Many scholars have noted that this emphasis on personality may obscure the importance of the interpersonal dynamics that place individuals at risk (Baumeister, 1990; Vangelisti, 1994).”
BackgroundMental pain as a mediator of suicidal tendency: A path analysis
Nahaliel, S., Sommerfeld, E., Orbach, I., Weller, A., Apter, A. S., & Zalsman, G. (2013) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.12.014 · Cited by 23
Implementing an evidence-based approach to working with suicidal inpatients
Ellis, T. E., Allen, J. G., Woodson, H., Frueh, B. C., & Jobes, D. A. (2009) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc.2009.73.4.339 · Cited by 22
“Finally, an SSF item on self-hate taps into psychodynamic theorizing about suicide as an attack on the self, as well as Baumeister’s work (1990) conceptualizing suicide as an escape from the pain of self-loathing and awareness of one’s failures.”
MethodLiang, Y., Huebner, E. S., & Tian, L. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01993-w · Cited by 24
Lu, Y., Sun, M., Li, Y., Wu, L., Zhang, X., Wang, J., Huang, Y., & Cao, F. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-022-09915-3 · Cited by 23
“According to the escape theory (Baumeister, 1990), suicide can be seen as the ultimate step in escaping from the self and the world.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Baumeister, R. F.
- Affiliations
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baumeister, Roy F.
- ORCID
- Baumeister, Roy F.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1990
- Volume
- 97
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 90-113
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2098559214
- Cited by
- 1,919
- References
- 212
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 137 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 88 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 92 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 67
- FWCI
- 13.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Disorders
- Keywords
- suicide, self-awareness, negative affect, internal attribution, self-justification, disinhibition, irrationality, meaning, temporal focus, concrete thinking, cognitive rigidity
- MeSH terms
- Depressive Disorder, Escape Reaction, Humans, Self Concept, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted
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