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On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure?
Abstract
Experiments 1-2 examined generic knowledge and episodic memories of putting in novice and expert golfers. Impoverished episodic recollection of specific putts among experts indicated that skilled putting is encoded in a procedural form that supports performance without the need for step-by-step attentional control. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, such proceduralization makes putting vulnerable to decrements under pressure. Experiments 3-4 examined choking and the ability of training conditions to ameliorate it in putting and a nonproceduralized alphabet arithmetic skill analogous to mental arithmetic. Choking occurred in putting but not alphabet arithmetic. In putting, choking was unchanged by dual-task training but eliminated by self-consciousness training. These findings support explicit monitoring theories of choking and the popular but infrequently tested belief that attending to proceduralized skills hurts performance.
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“which could in turn lead to choking under pressure (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
From Why grades engender performance-avoidance goals: The mediating role of autonomous motivation. (2011) · cites this paper as Beilock & Carr, 2001
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“The decline in performance can be explained through a variety of factors, including anxiety (Mesagno & Hill, 2013), distraction (Carver & Scheier, 2012), self-focus (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Masters, 1992), or self-presentation (Mesagno, Geukes, & Larkin, 2015; Mesagno, Harvey, & Janelle, 2011, 2012).”
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“…activity is that experts have no need for interventions from ‘higher’ cognitive processes such as effortful reasoning, which is dependent on working memory (Beilock and Carr 2001), rule-following (Fitts 1964), and attentional allocation (Abernethy, Maxwell, Masters, van der Kamp and Jackson, 2007).”
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“…attention on the movement itself (internal focus) potentially constrains the motor system, resulting in interference with the automatic mode of motor execution (see also self-focused attention theory [Baumeister, 1984] and explicit monitoring theory [Beilock & Carr, 2001], for related suggestions).”
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“…levels of arousal, anxiety, and worry have been investigated broadly across physical skills and performances as well as intellectual and academic contexts (Alpert & Haber, 1960, EL: 5; Beilock & Carr, 2001, EL: 3; Beilock et al., 2017, EL: 2; Mandler & Sarason, 1952, EL: 4; Sarason, 1980, EL: 2).”
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“Thinking about how to do a sports skill is called “explicit monitoring,” which of course backfires because the athlete is no longer executing with typical and smooth automaticity (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
BackgroundWho Has The Advantage? An Economic Exploration of Winning in Men's Professional Tennis
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“Beilock and Carr (2001) and Gucciardi and Dimmock (2008) note, though, that self-consciousness training and anxiety manipulation can reduce or even eliminate the tendency of sports players to crumble under pressure.”
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“The inability of expert performers to reflect verbally on their performance is so diminished that (Beilock and Carr 2001, 703) have dubbed it ‘expertise-induced amnesia’.”
BackgroundAttention: architecture and process
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“Indeed, based on the explicit monitoring hypothesis (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Schmader et al., 2008), under negative stereotyping, targeted individuals are likely to isolate and focus on specific components of task execution.”
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Min, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19084925 · Cited by 6
“According to existing literature, choking under pressure occurs because of excessive [9] or insufficient attention [10] toward task executions and is generated by competitive pressure.”
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“For example, after performing a series of putts, golfers were asked to recall the steps involved in the execution of their last putt (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
MethodProcessus attentionnels et apprentissage moteur
Ferrel, C., & Tahej, P.-K. (2010) · Science & Motricité · doi:10.1051/sm/2009006 · Cited by 10
Cromer, J., & Tenenbaum, G. (2009) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.001 · Cited by 6
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“Specifically, the accuracy of a highly practiced skill, such as putting, degraded when participants attended to what they were doing (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Beilock & Gonso, 2008; Beilock, Wierenga, & Carr, 2002; Gray, 2004).”
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Does the Better-than-Average Effect Show that People are Overconfident?: An ExperimentPreprint
Benoit, J.-P., Dubra, J., & Moore, D. A. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1337733 · Cited by 6
“Thus, our subjects appear to choke under pressure, as has been documented by other studies, including Ariely, Gneezy, Loewenstein, and Mazar (2005), Beilock and Carr (2001), Dohmen (2005), and Markman and Maddox (2006).”
Self-consciousness and trait anxiety influence music performance in high-pressure situations
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“We decided to assess the performance via audio instead of video recording because being video-recorded can raise self-consciousness (e.g., Beilock & Carr, 2001; Lewis & Linder, 1997), and therefore, video-recordings in the no-pressure condition could have induced a state of increased…”
InfluentialGenuine Movement Learning Through a Deleuzian Approach
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“…7 | Article 882164 an emphasis on normative evaluations have highlighted the harmful effects of these goals on cognitive performance through manipulating evaluative pressures in highly demanding tasks (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock and Carr, 2001, 2005; Beilock et al., 2004; DeCaro et al., 2010).”
BackgroundChoice, Uncertainty, and Decision Superiority: Is Less AI-Enabled Decision Support More?
Ward, P. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · doi:10.1109/thms.2023.3279036 · Cited by 10
“…complexity, and difficulty are low, generating more options has been shown to negatively affect expert performance in complex and dynamic tasks, and when skilled decisions are based on intuition (e.g., perceptually automated motor actions or recognition-primed decisions) [65], [67], [69], [105].”
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BackgroundDeclarative strategies persist under increased cognitive load
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“The work done on golf expertise by Beilock and Carr ( 2001 ) and Beilock, Wierenga and Carr (2003) is in this area.”
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“Many scholars proposed choking emerges when individuals or groups fail to concentrate on task-relevant information, processes, or cues (Baumeister, 1984; Beilock & Carr, 2001; Lewis & Linder, 1997; Weinberg & Gould, 2007).”
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“Explicit monitoring theories suggest that pressure leads people to attend so strongly to task stimuli that it disrupts execution (Beilock & Carr, 2001).”
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“According to the explicit monitoring theory (Beilock & Carr, 2001), beginners and professionals will react differently to different types of attention instruction (task-relevant or task-irrelevant attention instructions).”
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Fußball verstehen - Beiträge der Sozialpsychologie
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Very Highly Skilled Individuals Do Not Choke Under Pressure: Evidence from Professional DartsPreprint
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“…argue that distraction and explicit monitoring theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but rather complementary (see e.g. Beilock and Carr, 2001a; Sanders and Walia, 2012). by putting individuals’ attention to task irrelevant thoughts (Beilock and Carr, 2001a; Lewis and Linder, 1997).”
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The Psychology of Rituals: An Integrative Review and Process-Based FrameworkPreprint
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Neural substrates of choking under pressure: A 7T-fMRI study
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Trait and state mathematics anxiety in autistic and non-autistic school-aged boys
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“The imposition of time constraints for solving mental calculations may have adversely affected autistic participants, leading to lower scores than their actual competencies (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Beilock et al., 2004).”
Implementing pressure on athletes during training: a scoping review
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Assessment for and of learning in nonlinear movement education practices
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“Along with moving more efficiently and being able to respond to increasing environmental influence, learners are expected to progress from slow, conscious control of movement to smooth, automated performances (Beilock and Carr 2001).”
An Experimental Study of Prejudice Toward Drivers With Political Bumper Stickers
Drinnon, J., & Largent, A. (2019) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2325-7342.jn24.3.149 · Cited by 4
ON THE DARK SIDE OF LEARNING CALCULUS: EVIDENCE FROM AGRIBUSINESS STUDENTS
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“According to Beilock and Carr (2001), stressful feelings can also be induced when students are struggling and problematic, such as punishing poor performance with social consequences or low academic achievement which resulted in failing grades.”
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Positive valence ≠ positive effect: impact of positive meta-stereotypes on the cognitive performance
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“Beilock and Carr (2001) suggest that cognitive tasks may differ in terms of the susceptibilities to performance pressure.”
The Role of Instructions in Motor Learning of Oral Versus Nasalized Speech Targets
Perta, K., Bae, Y., Vuolo, J., Bressmann, T., & Fox, R. A. (2023) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00267 · Cited by 4
You, Y., van der Kamp, J., & Savelsbergh, G. J. P. (2024) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2024.2375569 · Cited by 4
“Verbal Knowledge Protocols: Following Beilock and Carr (2001), a verbal knowledge protocol (Appendix A) was used to assess the number of movement rules that participants used when performing the golf putting strokes.”
InfluentialNeurocognitive Concepts of Arthroscopic Surgical Training
Testa, E. J., & Green, A. J. (2024) · JBJS Reviews · doi:10.2106/jbjs.rvw.24.00058 · Cited by 4
Gender Inequality is negatively associated with academic achievement for both boys and girls
Zhang, L., Chao, B., Gao, Y., Wang, W., Yuan, Y., Chen, C., & Xin, Z. (2024) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-024-00261-7 · Cited by 4
Carnero-Díaz, Á., Pecci, J., Camacho-Lazarraga, P., & Lluch, Á. C. (2024) · Psychology of Sport And Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102766 · Cited by 7
Ilundáin‐Agurruza, J. (2014) · Sport Ethics and Philosophy · doi:10.1080/17511321.2014.981362 · Cited by 4
“The case of novices differs, as psychological studies show the expedience of attentional focus for them but not experts (Beilock and Carr 2001).”
BackgroundMindfulness in sport: A proposed intervention for choking susceptible athletes
Hussey, J. K. (2015) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 4
Bimanual coordination patterns are stabilized under monitoring-pressure
Buchanan, J. J., Park, I., Chen, J., Wright, D. L., & Mehta, R. K. (2017) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-016-4869-0 · Cited by 4
Kim, J. W., Dancy, C. L., Goldberg, B., & Sottilare, R. A. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58625-0_11 · Cited by 4
Social Psychology and Physical Activity: A Senior Perspective
Gill, D. L. (2020) · Kinesiology Review · doi:10.1123/kr.2019-0032 · Cited by 4
Aitken, J. A., Pagan, O., Wong, C. M., Bayley, B., Helton, W. S., & Kaplan, S. A. (2023) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2023.104011 · Cited by 5
Zhang, S., & Owen, R. (2023) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101031 · Cited by 4
Duration of Mentally Simulated Movement before and after a Golf Shot
Koyama, S., Tsuruhara, K., & Yamamoto, Y. (2009) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.108.1.327-338 · Cited by 4
Skill performance in informal economy workers: Multilevel perceptual assessment
Peter-Cookey, M. A., & Janyam, K. (2017) · Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.kjss.2017.11.003 · Cited by 6
“Skill performance is considered as behaviors, actions, and outcomes within and outside the control of workers toward the fulfillment of customers' expectations and product/service requirements (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Harris, 2008).”
BackgroundPifer, N. D., DeSchriver, T. D., Baker, T. A., & Zhang, J. J. (2018) · Journal of Sports Analytics · doi:10.3233/jsa-180331 · Cited by 4
Cappuccio, M. L., & Ilundáin‐Agurruza, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108682312.007 · Cited by 5
“Know-How, procedural knowledge, and choking under pressure”
Gottlieb, G. (2014) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-014-9379-6 · Cited by 4
Breadth and Depth of Knowledge in Expert Versus Novice Athletes
Sutton, J. D., & McIlwain, D. J. F. (2015) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · doi:10.4324/9781315776675.ch9 · Cited by 4
“…to perceptual input are both faster and more effortless for experts because their actions are “controlled in real time by procedural knowledge that requires little attention, operates largely outside of working memory, and is substantially closed to introspection” (Beilock & Carr, 2001, p. 702).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- ORCID
- Beilock, Sian L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2001
- Volume
- 130
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 701-725
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W2151259821
- Cited by
- 1,201
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 82 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 56 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 58
- FWCI
- 16.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- choking under pressure, procedural memory, proceduralization, golf putting, episodic memory, dual-task training, mental arithmetic, attentional control
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Psychomotor Performance, Stress, Psychological
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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