Cited by 1,201Sport Psychology and PerformanceMemory Processes and InfluencesCognitive Functions and Memory

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On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure?

Beilock, Sian L., Carr, Thomas H.·2001·Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

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Abstract

Experiments 1-2 examined generic knowledge and episodic memories of putting in novice and expert golfers. Impoverished episodic recollection of specific putts among experts indicated that skilled putting is encoded in a procedural form that supports performance without the need for step-by-step attentional control. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, such proceduralization makes putting vulnerable to decrements under pressure. Experiments 3-4 examined choking and the ability of training conditions to ameliorate it in putting and a nonproceduralized alphabet arithmetic skill analogous to mental arithmetic. Choking occurred in putting but not alphabet arithmetic. In putting, choking was unchanged by dual-task training but eliminated by self-consciousness training. These findings support explicit monitoring theories of choking and the popular but infrequently tested belief that attending to proceduralized skills hurts performance.

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“This performance deficit is classically known as „choking‟(Beilock & Carr, 2001; Hill et al., 2010), and among golfers well-known as „the yips‟.”
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“…high stakes might be the phenomenon of “ choking under pressure, ” i.e., the fear of failure in high stakes situations inducing rumination and thus decreasing performance (Beilock and Carr 2001, 2005; Chib et al. 2012, 2014; Dunne et al. 2019), an option we had considered in our preregistration.”
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“…freezing (van Gin-neken et al., 2018) and a tendency to experience dechunking (Bellomo et al., 2018), during which larger chunks of information and memory units associated with movement become smaller, individual components (Beilock and Carr, 2001; Masters et al., 1993; Poolton and Masters, 2014).”
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Authors: Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H.
Affiliations: Michigan State University (US)
ORCID: Beilock, Sian L.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2001
Volume: 130
Issue: 4
Pages: 701-725
ISSN: 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
1939-2222
DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.701
OpenAlex: W2151259821
Cited by: 1,201
References: 58
Citations by year: 2026: 82 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 56 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 58
FWCI: 16.88
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: choking under pressure, procedural memory, proceduralization, golf putting, episodic memory, dual-task training, mental arithmetic, attentional control
MeSH terms: Adult, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Psychomotor Performance, Stress, Psychological

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On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure?

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