Illusions of Competence in Monitoring One's Knowledge During Study.
Abstract
The monitoring of one's own knowledge during study suffers from an inherent discrepancy between study and test situations: Judgments of learning (JOLs) are made in the presence of information that is absent but solicited during testing. The failure to discount the effects of that information when making JOLs can instill a sense of competence during learning that proves unwarranted during testing. Using a paired-associates task, the authors examined aspects of the cue-target relationships that seemed likely contributors to such illusions of competence. These aspects have the potential to create differential strengths of a priori and a posteriori associations, that is, the probability with which a cue, when presented alone, elicits the corresponding target versus the perceived association between the cue and the target when both are present. The authors argue that the former has the greater influence on later recall, whereas the latter has the greater influence on JOLs.
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Monitoring and control are interrelated.
“Monitoring and control are interrelated [93,95].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [93]
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BackgroundSelf-citationMemory predictions are influenced by perceptual information: Evidence for metacognitive illusions.
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“While metacognitive monitoring is fairly accurate in predicting upcoming memory performance there are cases in which metamemory judgments do not appropriately reflect what they are meant to appraise (Benjamin, Bjork, & Schwartz, 1998; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Zechmeister & Shaughnessy, 1980).”
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“…1.43 (0.68) Experiment 2 Fluent speaker 4.03 (0.95) 4.34 (0.68) 4.43 (0.78) 3.71 (0.86) Disfluent speaker 2.11 (0.93) 2.29 (1.02) 2.14 (1.00) 1.83 (0.86) Roediger, 2007; Dunlosky & Nelson, 1994; Finn & Metcalfe, 2007; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Koriat, Sheffer, & Ma'ayan, 2002; Kornell & Bjork, 2009 ).”
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“Research on metamemory has attempted to delineate the heuristics and cues that guide metamemory predictions and has sometimes found that these heuristics are not aligned with actual memory performance (e.g., Koriat, 1997; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Kornell, Rhodes, Castel, & Tauber, 2011).”
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“, possibly because the learners could perceive some relationship between two words that, according to association norms, were unrelated (see Koriat & Bjork, 2005 ).”
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“Following training, JOLs accurately reflected the belief of a memory advantage for low frequency words in recognition tests (Benjamin, 2003) and the belief that specific targets seem very obvious when presented along with the cue at study but are hard to recall at test (Koriat & Bjork, 2005, 2006).”
BackgroundResultA randomized controlled trial of interleaved mathematics practice
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“…blocked practice, students know the strategy for each problem before they read the problem, and this resulting fluency, although illusory, might lead students and teachers to falsely believe that blocking enhances efficacy (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; Schmidt & Bjork, 1992).”
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“For example, Koriat and Bjork (2005) demonstrated that people give associatively related items higher JOLs than unrelated items, but ignore asymmetries in forward versus backward cueing between the two words in a PA item (e.g., cheddar activates cheese as an associate but not vice versa).”
BackgroundTesting facilitates the regulation of subsequent study time
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Self-citationFamiliarity and retrieval processes in delayed judgments of learning.
Metcalfe, J., & Finn, B. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0012580 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Delayed JOLs, in which the judgments are made using only the cue at some time after the study effort, appear to be among the most accurate ways of making a self assessment of one’s own learning, both in terms of relative accuracy (Nelson & Dunlosky, 1991) and calibration (Finn & Metcalfe, 2007, 2008; Koriat & Bjork, 2…”
Horzum, M. B., Kaymak, Z. D., & Güngören, Ö. C. (2015) · Educational Sciences Theory & Practice · doi:10.12738/estp.2015.3.2410 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Koriat and Bjork (2005; 2006) found in their research on controlled experimental settings that student perceptions and feelings toward their learning are greater than their achievements.”
BackgroundThe relationships between monitoring, regulation and performance
Koriat, A. (2012) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.01.002 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“As noted by Koriat and Bjork (2005), the monitoring of one’s own learning typically occurs in the presence of information that is absent but solicited during testing.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMueller, M. L., Dunlosky, J. T., & Tauber, S. K. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1058404 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…& Ma’ayan, 2002), how study time influences JOLs (Koriat, Ma’ayan, & Nussinson, 2006), whether single or multiple dimensions are used when making JOLs (Jang & Nelson, 2005), how value impacts JOLs (Soderstrom & McCabe, 2011), and why learners display illusions of competence (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundThe Importance of Self-Regulation for College Student Learning.
Cohen, M. T. (2012) · College student journal · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The Curse of Expertise: When More Knowledge Leads to Miscalibrated Explanatory Insight
Fisher, M., & Keil, F. C. (2015) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12280 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Yan, L., Martinez-Maldonado, R., Jin, Y., Echeverria, V., Milesi, M., Fan, J., Zhao, L., Alfredo, R., Li, X., & Gašević, D. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105322 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Kostons, D. D. N. M., van Gog, T., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2009) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.09.025 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Mental Workload: Assessment, Prediction and Consequences
Wickens, C. D. (2017) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61061-0_2 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Finley, J. R., & Benjamin, A. S. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0026215 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Fries, L., Son, J. Y., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09561-x · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“If a student experiences learning as easy and effortless, this generally means that what was learned will not be retained (Koriat and Bjork 2005).”
BackgroundChoy, J. L. F., & Quek, C. L. (2016) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.2500 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Particularly if learning materials are presented online (Ackerman & Goldsmith, 2011; Ackerman & Lauterman, 2012), the aspect of how learning is being measured may result in different outcomes (Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Rhodes & Castel, 2008).”
BackgroundWeaver, J. P., Chastain, R. J., DeCaro, D. A., & DeCaro, M. S. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.12.003 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…because exploration is typically more error prone, exploratory learning may enhance metacognitive awareness and reduce overconfidence, preparing students to pay closer attention to subsequent instruction and improving their learning outcomes (DeCaro & Rittle-Johnson, 2012; Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundShapiro, A. M., Sims‐Knight, J. E., O'Rielly, G. V., Capaldo, P., Pedlow, T., Gordon, L. T., & Monteiro, K. A. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.03.017 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Rummel, J., & Meiser, T. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.06.006 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“…& Marchitelli, 1990; but see also Son & Metcalfe, 2000), the illusion of competence in cued-recall tasks (Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007; Koriat & Bjork, 2005), or systematic guessing behavior in recognition and source memory (Förster & Strack, 1998; Meiser, Sattler, & von Hecker, 2007;…”
BackgroundMethodLinking Cognitive Science to Education: Generation and Interleaving Effects
Bjork, R. A., Finley, J. R., Linn, M. C., & Richland, L. E. (2005) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of list composition and perceptual fluency on judgments of learning (JOLs)
Susser, J. A., Mulligan, N. W., & Besken, M. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0323-8 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Can teachers accurately predict student performance?
Thiede, K. W., Brendefur, J. L., Osguthorpe, R. D., Carney, M. B., Bremner, A., Strother, S., Oswalt, S., Snow, J. L., Sutton, J. T., & Jesse, D. (2015) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.01.012 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The Association between Motivation, Affect, and Self-regulated Learning When Solving Problems
Baars, M., Wijnia, L., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01346 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Students overestimate their competence to solve a problem when information about the problem solution is present during studying (Koriat and Bjork, 2005, 2006; Bjork et al., 2013).”
BackgroundBesken, M., & Mulligan, N. W. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0034407 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Some of these cues accurately reflect later memory but others do not (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
Highlighting and Its Relation to Distributed Study and Students’ Metacognitive Beliefs
Yue, C. L., Storm, B. C., Kornell, N., & Bjork, E. L. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9277-z · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“More generally, the present work provides another example of what Bjork (1999) and others (e.g., Koriat and Bjork 2005) have referred to as an illusion of competence.”
BackgroundA Controlled Study of Clicker-Assisted Memory Enhancement in College Classrooms
Shapiro, A., & Gordon, L. T. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2843 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
The Testing Effect: Illustrating a Fundamental Concept and Changing Study Strategies
Einstein, G. O., Mullet, H. G., & Harrison, T. L. (2012) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628312450432 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Because to-be-learned material is immediately accessible when rereading, one explanation is that rereading imbues students with an illusion of confidence regarding their learning (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundHindsight Bias: A Primer for Motivational Researchers
Pezzo, M. V. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00381.x · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Young Children’s Sensitivity to Their Own Ignorance in Informing Others
Kim, S., Paulus, M., Sodian, B., & Proust, J. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152595 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“, when valid and relevant to the task at hand, which seems to be the case in the informing task); when they are not, they generate illusory feelings of knowing [35] or illusory judgments of truth [36].”
BackgroundIncreasing Student Success Using Online Quizzing in Introductory (Majors) Biology
Orr, R. B., & Foster, S. (2013) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.12-10-0183 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Pre-exam quizzing may act as an early warning system for students, showing them that they have the illusion of knowing the material but have not learned the material sufficiently for accurate recollection in a testing environment (Koriat and Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundDistracted students: A comparison of multiple types of distractions on learning in online lectures.
Blasiman, R. N., Larabee, D., & Fabry, D. (2018) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000122 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“A JOL is students’ self-report of how well they believe they have learned some recently studied information (Koriat, 1997; Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundStanton, J. D., Dye, K. M., & Johnson, M. (2019) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.18-12-0239 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“In this situation, students’ JOLs are subject to foresight bias, which occurs when students predict how well they have learned something in the presence of that information (Koriat and Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialCarlson, E. N., Furr, R. M., & Vazire, S. (2010) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550609356028 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Calibration has received extensive attention in other domains (e.g., memory and learning), and such work has revealed several important consequences of calibration (Huff & Nietfeld, 2009; Koriat, 2008; Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundSein, A. S., Rashid, H., Meka, J., Amiel, J. M., & Pluta, W. J. (2020) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2020.1789081 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Non-cumulative exam feedback can give students an ‘illusion of competence’ because it is not known how well this understanding will be retained for the longterm (Koriat and Bjork 2005).”
BackgroundExploring a mnemonic debiasing account of the underconfidence-with-practice effect.
Koriat, A., Ma’ayan, H., Sheffer, L., & Bjork, R. A. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.3.595 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Consistent with predictions, the overconfidence bias in Presentation 1 was due primarily to the backward-associated pairs, whereas the forwardassociated pairs yielded good calibration (Koriat & Bjork, 2005; 2006).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationExtending the testing effect to self-regulated learning
Fernandez, J., & Jamet, É. (2016) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-016-9163-9 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Sheffler, P., Rodríguez, T. M., Cheung, C. S.-S., & Wu, R. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1585 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Measuring memory monitoring with judgements of retention (JORs)
Tauber, S. K., & Rhodes, M. G. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.656665 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Monitoring (as assessed via JOLs) is often accurate, yet a number of discrepancies between predictions and actual memory performance have been demonstrated (eg, Carroll et al, 1997 ; Koriat & Bjork, 2005 ; Koriat et al, 2004 ; Kornell, Rhodes, Castel, & Tauber, 2011 ; Rhodes & Castel, 2008 , 2009 ; Tauber & Rhodes, 20…”
Further boundary conditions for the effects of perceptual disfluency on judgments of learning
Magreehan, D. A., Serra, M. J., Schwartz, N. H., & Narciss, S. (2015) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-015-9147-1 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“This same cue, however, can impair the accuracy of people’s JOLs in situations where item relatedness does not actually predict memory (e.g., Koriat and Bjork 2005, 2006).”
Metacognitive monitoring and learning gain in foundation chemistry
Mathabathe, K. C., & Potgieter, M. (2013) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c3rp00119a · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Toth, J. P., Daniels, K. A., & Solinger, L. A. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0023379 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“This distinction usefully integrates extant findings and has been fruitful in spurring important new research (e.g., Koriat & Bjork, 2005, 2006; Koriat et al., 2004).”
BackgroundHaider, H., & Frensch, P. A. (2008) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-008-0199-6 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Zaromb, F. M., Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0018277 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“(Karpicke, in press; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Metcalfe & Finn, 2008).”
Nudge Versus Boost: Agency Dynamics Under Libertarian Paternalism
Hertwig, R., & Ryall, M. D. (2019) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1093/ej/uez054 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Exerting Control Over Allegedly Automatic Associative Processes
Forgas, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (2011) · doi:10.4324/9780203837962-23 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Testing prepares students to learn better: The forward effect of testing in category learning.
Lee, H. S., & Ahn, D. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000211 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In this regard, since the interim-math condition did not have an opportunity to test their own learning, they might have experienced the illusion of competence (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
The Creative Cycle and the Growth of Psychological Science
Fiedler, K. (2018) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617745651 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Tversky and Kahneman’s (1974) overwhelming influence reflects what Michael Lewis (2017) called the “undoing project”: that is, their guts in opposing the dominant normative positions and their unorthodox invention of seemingly irrational heuristics to explain allegedly rational behavior.”
BackgroundJudgments of learning are influenced by multiple cues in addition to memory for past test accuracy.
Hertzog, C. K., Hines, J. C., & Touron, D. R. (2013) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000003 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Price, J., McElroy, K., & Martin, N. J. (2015) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2015.1102194 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In these cases, learners’ perceptions regarding which items will be easier to remember tend to align with actual memory performance (c.f., Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundFactors Affecting Students' Attitudes toward Computer Programming
Derya GURER, M., CETIN, I., & TOP, E. (2019) · Informatics in Education · doi:10.15388/infedu.2019.13 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Testing enhances learning: A review of the literature
Binks, S. (2018) · Journal of Professional Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2017.08.008 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Августюк, М. М., Pasichnyk, I., & Kalamazh, R. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i2.1418 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The illusion of knowing is preceded by the illusions of competence (Bjork, 1999; Castel, McCabe, & Roediger, 2007; Dunning et al., 2003; Koriat & Bjork, 2005; Metcalfe, 1998; Zechmeister & Shaughnessy, 1980), the illusions of remembering (Jacoby, Bjork, & Kelley, 1994), the illusions of familiarity…”
BackgroundKoriat, A. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118468333.ch12 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationBailey, J. R., & Raelin, J. D. (2015) · Organization Management Journal · doi:10.1080/15416518.2015.1039637 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Although externally measurable, competence is internally anchored (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
BackgroundBall, B. H., Klein, K. N., & Brewer, G. A. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000023 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The perplexing role of learner control in e‐learning: will learning and transfer benefit or suffer?
Granger, B. P., & Levine, E. L. (2010) · International Journal of Training and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2419.2010.00351.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
An analysis of the determinants of the feeling of knowing
Thomas, A. K., Bulevich, J. B., & Dubois, S. J. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.09.005 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…example, metamemory predictions have been shown to be influenced by noun concreteness (Begg, Duft, Lalonde, & Melnick, 1989; Groninger, 1979; Koriat, 1997; Koriat & Bjork, 2005, 2006; Moulin, Perfect, & Jones, 2000), and by associative strength between cue-target word pairs (Koriat & Bjork, 2005).”
Improving the accuracy of teachers' judgments of student learning
Thiede, K. W., Brendefur, J. L., Carney, M. B., Champion, J., Turner, L. R., Stewart, R. A., & Osguthorpe, R. D. (2018) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2018.08.004 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Instructor fluency leads to higher confidence in learning, but not better learning
Toftness, A. R., Carpenter, S. K., Geller, J., Lauber, S., Johnson, M., & Armstrong, P. I. (2017) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-017-9175-0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…ability to remember simple stimuli such as word lists (e.g., Carpenter and Olson 2012; Dunlosky and Nelson 1994; Finn and Metcalfe 2007; Koriat and Bjork 2005), and for students in classrooms estimating their own performance on upcoming exams (e.g., Foster et al. 2017; Hacker et al. 2000; Hartwig…”
Background
- Authors
- Koriat, A., & Bjork, R. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Haifa (IL)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2005
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 187-194
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2056938988
- Semantic Scholar
- 4d25bc4f205114d6026550814c8a78075728a4b5
- Cited by
- 362
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 5.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- judgments of learning, metacognition, self-assessment of knowledge, paired-associate learning, memory retrieval
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Cues, Educational Measurement, Humans, Illusions, Judgment, Learning, Professional Competence, Mental Recall, Vocabulary
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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