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Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: a review of the literature with reference to methodological issues
Abstract
Demonstrating causal relationships has been of particular importance in organizational stress research. Longitudinal studies are typically suggested to overcome problems of reversed causation and third variables (e.g., social desirability and negative affectivity). This article reviews the empirical longitudinal literature and discusses designs and statistical methods used in these studies. Forty-three longitudinal field reports on organizational stress were identified. Most of the investigations used a 2-wave panel design and a hierarchical multiple regression approach. Six studies with 3 and more waves were found. About 50% of the studies analyzed potential strain-stressor (reversed causation) relationships. In about 33% of the studies there was some evidence of reverse causation. The power of longitudinal studies to rule out third variable explanations was not realized in many studies. Procedures of how to analyze longitudinal data are suggested.
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“Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence, but are prone to residual confounding [[36], [37], [38]] and other forms of bias that limit causal inference [[39], [40], [41], [42], [43]].”
From Improving sleep quality leads to better mental health: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (2021) · cites this paper as [38]
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A multi-group cross-lagged analyses of work stressors and health using Canadian National sample
Ibrahim, S. A., Smith, P. M., & Muntaner, C. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.10.019 · Cited by 74
“First, we used self-report measures of health and work variables which may result in common method variance (Spector, 2006); but as discussed by Zapf et al. (1996) use of cross-lagged panel design might reduce some of the biases resulting from method variance.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialRousseau, V., Aubé, C., Chiocchio, F., Boudrias, J., & Morin, E. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00368.x · Cited by 71
The impact of state affect on job satisfaction
Niklas, C. D., & Dormann, C. (2005) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320500348880 · Cited by 70
“According to Zapf, Dormann, and Frese ( 1996 ; Dormann & Zapf, 2001 ), controlling prior job satisfaction in longitudinal analyses would mitigate the effects of unmeasured third variables to a large extend.”
BackgroundSelf-citationScott, A. J., Webb, T. L., & Rowse, G. (2017) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016873 · Cited by 72
Increased Insomnia Symptoms Predict the Onset of Back Pain among Employed Adults
Agmon, M., & Armon, G. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103591 · Cited by 71
“Third, the longitudinal design using three waves of data allowed for testing reverse causation and the interpretation of causality in the link between increased insomnia severity over time and the development of back pain [48].”
Methodter Doest, L., & JONGE, J. D. (2006) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317905x55271 · Cited by 68
Work-family conflict, self-efficacy, and emotional exhaustion: A test of longitudinal effects
Rubio, C., Segovia, A. O., Recio, P., Uríen, B., & Silla, J. M. P. (2015) · Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.rpto.2015.06.004 · Cited by 75
“According to Zapf, Dormann, and Frese (1996) longitudinal studies represent a breakthrough since they allow casualty and directionality analysis to be made among variables, something that is not possible in cross-sectional studies, which are more frequent in psychological research.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSchmidt, K., & Diestel, S. (2010) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.04.003 · Cited by 75
Lagged mediator effects of self‐control demands on psychological strain and absenteeism
Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K. (2012) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.2012.02058.x · Cited by 74
“Thus, in line with prior studies (Schaufeli et al., 2009; Zapf et al., 1996), these results suggest that neither strain nor absenteeism influences job characteristics.”
ResultKao, K., Spitzmueller, C., Cigularov, K. P., & Thomas, C. L. (2019) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2019.1567492 · Cited by 67
“…lags, such as one year, may result in underestimation of true effect sizes; however, such time lags are considered less of a problem than using short time lags (Dwyer, 1983; Zapf et al., 1996), and are commonly used in safety research (Lu et al., 2014; Neal & Griffin, 2006; Nielsen et al., 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPersonality traits as predictors or outcomes of being exposed to bullying in the workplace
Podsiadly, A., & Gamian-Wilk, M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.001 · Cited by 73
Organizational fairness and psychological distress in hospital physicians
Sutinen, R., Mika Kivimaki, B., Elovainio, M. J., & Virtanen, M. (2002) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/140349480203000307 · Cited by 72
“Structural equation modelling is recommended when estimating relationships between constructs (19).”
BackgroundLongitudinal Investigation of Reciprocal Relationship Between Stress Reactions and Hardiness
Vogt, D. S., Rizvi, S. L., Shipherd, J. C., & Resick, P. A. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207309197 · Cited by 69
“As discussed previously, this approach has a number of advantages relative to the more traditional multiple regression approach, including the ability to simultaneously estimate relationships among variables, model synchronous effects between variables at the same time point, and model measurement error associated wit…”
BackgroundFlex‐time as a moderator of the job stress‐work motivation relationship
Barney, C. E., & Elias, S. M. (2010) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/00483481011045434 · Cited by 74
Størseth, F. (2006) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00548.x · Cited by 65
Effects of On‐Call Work on Well‐Being: Results of a Daily Survey 1
Bamberg, E., Dettmers, J., Funck, H., Krähe, B., & Vahle‐Hinz, T. (2012) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2012.01075.x · Cited by 67
Igic, I., Keller, A. C., Elfering, A., Tschan, F., Kälin, W., & Semmer, N. K. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000225 · Cited by 75
Veenstra, M., Moum, T., & Garratt, A. (2006) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-006-0043-7 · Cited by 63
“The use of linear SEM should capture most of the important variance at a cost of some lack of statistical fit [40].”
BackgroundCho, E., & Tay, L. (2015) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-015-9423-8 · Cited by 73
“Although longitudinal research does not provide conclusive evidence for causality, it is more informative than correlational research in that the problem of reverse causation can be reduced with longitudinal design (Zapf et al. 1996).”
BackgroundDifferential activation of judgments in employee well‐being
Warr, P. B. (2006) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317905x52652 · Cited by 67
Edwards, J. A., Guppy, A., & Cockerton, T. (2007) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678370701466900 · Cited by 62
“Zapf et al. (1996) and Beehr, Jex, Stacey, and Murrey (2000) recommend that further longitudinal studies in the field of organizational stress research are required, as this methodology will allow the examination of the causal relationship between work-related stress and work performance over time.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGriffiths, A., Cox, T., Karanika‐Murray, M., et al. (2006) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.2005.023671 · Cited by 64
The success resource model of job stress
Grebner, S., Elfering, A., & Semmer, N. K. (2010) · Research in occupational stress and well being · doi:10.1108/s1479-3555(2010)0000008005 · Cited by 69
Briner, R. B., & Walshe, N. D. (2015) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12133 · Cited by 77
Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K. (2010) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.05.006 · Cited by 69
A longitudinal panel study on antecedents and outcomes of work–home interference
Steinmetz, H., Fresé, M., & Schmidt, P. S. (2008) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2008.05.002 · Cited by 62
“Comprehensiveness of the causal analyses Zapf et al. (1996) criticized that many longitudinal studies on job stress did not fully utilize the longitudinal design and only investigate one causal direction - the traditionally hypothesized stressor - strain direction.”
InfluentialSelf-citationDaily job search and psychological distress: Evidence from China
Song, Z., Uy, M. A., Zhang, S., & Shi, K. (2009) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726709334883 · Cited by 63
Yragui, N. L., Demsky, C. A., Hammer, L. B., Dyck, S. E. V., & Neradilek, M. B. (2016) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-016-9443-z · Cited by 63
“Researchers should consider further exploring the nature of these relationships utilizing longitudinal research designs, as reviews of the literature have noted the reliance on cross-sectional designs and need for increased longitudinal research, which would be useful for inferring causation (Casper et al. 2007; Zapf…”
Vincent‐Höper, S., & Stein, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01049 · Cited by 73
“Therefore, reverse causal effects of employee well-being on leaders’ perceived impact on employees’ work characteristics are possible (cf. Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundGu, Y., Wang, R., & You, X. (2019) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1007/s10643-019-00994-w · Cited by 73
van Dierendonck, D., & Dijkstra, M. (2012) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.01022.x · Cited by 62
A Longitudinal Study of Age‐Related Differences in Reactions to Psychological Contract Breach
Bal, P. M., de Lange, A. H., Jansen, P. G. W., & van der Velde, M. E. G. (2012) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00524.x · Cited by 72
Employee performance and abusive supervision: The role of supervisor over‐attributions
Lyubykh, Z., Bozeman, J., Hershcovis, M. S., Turner, N., & Shan, J. V. (2021) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2560 · Cited by 72
Powell, M. A., Dawson, J., Topakas, A., Durose, J., & Fewtrell, C. (2014) · Health Services and Delivery Research · doi:10.3310/hsdr02500 · Cited by 64
Organisational climate and employee health outcomes: A systematic review
Loh, M. Y., Idris, M. A., Dormann, C., & Muhamad, H. B. (2019) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2019.05.052 · Cited by 66
Self-citationRole stressors and exposure to workplace bullying: Causes or consequences of what and why?
Hauge, L. J., Skogstad, A., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2010.482264 · Cited by 60
“Too short a time lag may lead to the conclusion that no causal effect exists, whereas too long a time lag may lead to an underestimation of the true causal effect (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundChanges in situational and dispositional factors as predictors of job satisfaction
Keller, A. C., & Semmer, N. K. (2013) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.004 · Cited by 74
Pace, V. L. (2009) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428109351751 · Cited by 60
Shimazu, A., & JONGE, J. D. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.09.055 · Cited by 60
“Several researchers (e.g., Williams & Podsakoff, 1989; Zapf et al., 1996) advise using structural equation modeling (SEM) for testing our hypotheses.”
BackgroundDepressive symptoms in junior doctors: a follow-up study on work-related determinants
Weigl, M., Hornung, S., Petru, R., Glaser, J., & Angerer, P. (2011) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-011-0706-8 · Cited by 61
Organisational Causes of Workplace Bullying
Salin, D., & Hoel, H. (2010) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/ebk1439804896-13 · Cited by 116
Organisational antecedents of workplace bullying
Salin, D., & Hoel, H. (2002) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9780203164662.ch10 · Cited by 60
Rydstedt, L. W., Devereux, J. J., & Sverke, M. (2007) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320601182311 · Cited by 63
“However, from a methodological perspective weak longitudinal stressor-strain relationships are to be expected, partly because of the multifaceted aetiology of strain reactions and the unavoidable measurement bias involved in assessing stressors and strains (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodCausal Ordering of Basic Psychological Needs and Well-Being
León, J., & Alonso, J. L. N. (2012) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0143-4 · Cited by 83
“Zapf et al. (1996), among others, have reviewed the relative strengths and weaknesses of various forms of longitudinal analyses, and according to their recommendations, we will use fully cross-lagged panel models.”
MethodCustomer stressors in service organizations: The impact of age on stress management and burnout
Johnson, S. J., Holdsworth, L., Hoel, H., & Zapf, D. (2013) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2013.772581 · Cited by 64
Self-citationJONGE, J. D., van der Linden, S., Schaufeli, W. B., Peter, R., & Siegrist, J. (2008) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf03003075 · Cited by 59
Spychala, A., & Sonnentag, S. (2011) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2010.487646 · Cited by 66
“Moreover, following the suggestion of Zapf, Dormann, and Frese ( 1996 ), we also examined reverse relationships, ie, predicting change in situational constraints, promotion-oriented initiative, and prevention-oriented initiative from task conflicts at work.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPheko, M. M., Monteiro, N. M., & Segopolo, M. T. (2017) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2017.1300973 · Cited by 62
Organisational Effects of Workplace Bullying
Hoel, H., Sheehan, M., Cooper, C. L., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/ebk1439804896-8 · Cited by 92
Mansell, A., Brough, P. A., & Cole, K. (2006) · International Journal of Stress Management · doi:10.1037/1072-5245.13.1.84 · Cited by 58
Feuerhahn, N., Roßnagel, C. S., Wolfram, M., Bellingrath, S., & Kudielka, B. M. (2012) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2467 · Cited by 68
Psychological detachment: A moderator in the relationship of self-control demands and job strain
Rivkin, W., Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K. (2014) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2014.924926 · Cited by 57
Huang, Y., Du, P., Chen, C., Yang, C., & Huang, I. (2010) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1340 · Cited by 61
Kirves, K., Cuyper, N. D., Kinnunen, U. M., & Nätti, J. (2011) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-011-0630-y · Cited by 56
“Still, similar results have been found in previous research addressing the stressor-strain relationship ( Zapf et al. 1996 ).”
ResultBeauregard, N., Marchand, A., & Blanc, M.-È. (2011) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-439 · Cited by 56
“Firstly, we opted for community-based as opposed to clinical-based sampling of workers to ensure that selected workers were not followed for other concurrent medical conditions implicating potential reverse causation effects of mental health on workers’ assessment of their work and non-work exposures [24].”
MethodWork-Family Conflict and Employee Well-Being Over Time
Neto, M., Carvalho, V. S., Chambel, M. J., Sérgio, M., Miguel, J. P., & Reis, M. F. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000707 · Cited by 59
“As well as providing a baseline against which to evaluate subsequent models, the incorporation of stability estimates helps to control for third variables (eg, personality characteristics), which may account for the associations among the target variables.(34) In this model and all subsequent models, Time 1 latent var…”
BackgroundSpurk, D., Keller, A. C., & Hirschi, A. (2018) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12238 · Cited by 58
Hollands, L., Haensse, L., & Lin‐Hi, N. (2023) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/00218863231165785 · Cited by 92
“In particular, cross-sectional studies have limited capacity to investigate temporal dynamics and establish cause-and-effect relationships (Mann, 2003; Taris & Kompier, 2003; Zapf et al., 1996), limiting knowledge on the development of organizational resilience.”
Mohr, G., & Semmer, N. K. (2002) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026//0033-3042.53.2.77 · Cited by 56
Muntz, J., Dormann, C., & Kronenwett, M. (2019) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2019.1625888 · Cited by 55
“The perception of illegitimate (especially unnecessary) tasks would actually exacerbate this state of dissatisfaction when communicated unclearly or dishonestly, which bears the risk of a “positive feedback loop” (Zapf et al., 1996, p. 148) between dissatisfaction and perceived illegitimacy.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMartín-Albó, J., Alonso, J. L. N., Domínguez, E., León, J., & Tomás, J. M. (2012) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2011.649776 · Cited by 59
“Among others, Zapf and colleagues (Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996 ) have reviewed the relative strengths and weaknesses of various forms of longitudinal analyses and, according to their recommendations, we use fully cross-lagged panel models analysed via structural equation models.”
MethodFührungsstile als Stressbarrieren
Rowold, J., & Heinitz, K. (2008) · Zeitschrift für Personalpsychologie · doi:10.1026/1617-6391.7.3.129 · Cited by 54
Somech, A. (2015) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2015.1082734 · Cited by 62
Demerouti, E., Sanz‐Vergel, A. I., Petrou, P., & van den Heuvel, M. (2016) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000022 · Cited by 60
Leading for Safety: A Question of Leadership Focus
Mattson, M., Schwarz, U. V. T., Hellgren, J., Hasson, H., & Tafvelin, S. (2018) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2018.12.001 · Cited by 55
“This would imply that the causal effects of each specific factor are likely to be small [49].”
BackgroundAppreciation by supervisors buffers the impact of work interruptions on well-being longitudinally.
Stocker, D., Keller, A. C., Meier, L. L., Elfering, A., Pfister, I. B., Jacobshagen, N., & Semmer, N. K. (2018) · International Journal of Stress Management · doi:10.1037/str0000111 · Cited by 65
Yue, Y., Nguyen, H., Groth, M., Johnson, A. M., & Frenkel, S. J. (2020) · Journal of Service Research · doi:10.1177/1094670520967994 · Cited by 54
“For example, employees who regularly withdraw from their work might be allocated fewer interesting tasks and given less support by supervisors and coworkers (Zapf, Dormann, and Frese 1996).”
BackgroundYang, L., Wang, W., Huang, P., & Nguyen, A. (2022) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-022-09803-5 · Cited by 64
The Key to Sustainable Economic Development: A Triple Bottom Line Approach
Nogueira, E., Gomes, S., & Lopes, J. M. (2022) · Resources · doi:10.3390/resources11050046 · Cited by 53
“Reflections of Zapf [158] should also be considered because, although this study was longitudinal, it could be assumed that a link between the ED and the variables adopted as representatives of the TBL may exist.”
BackgroundThe Relation of Self‐Control Demands to Job Strain: The Moderating Role of Organisational Commitment
Schmidt, K., & Diestel, S. (2011) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00479.x · Cited by 53
The Impact of Underemployment on Psychological Health, Physical Health, and Work Attitudes
Anderson, S., & Winefield, A. H. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9413-4_9 · Cited by 54
Burnout development among dentists: a longitudinal study
Te Brake, H., Smits, N., Wicherts, J. M., Gorter, R. C., & Hoogstraten, J. (2008) · European Journal of Oral Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0722.2008.00584.x · Cited by 53
Somech, A., & Drach‐Zahavy, A. (2012) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2011.633702 · Cited by 56
“Cross-sectional studies run the risk of an artificial correlation between stressors and strain due to “occasion factors” (eg, time of day, mood variables), which may exaggerate strain and stressors; but in this study, because data were collected in two point of time no true occasion factor correlations over time exist…”
ResultSchmidt, K., Hupke, M., & Diestel, S. (2012) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2012.660367 · Cited by 57
“However, several longitudinal studies have provided strong empirical arguments against this hypothesis (for an overview, see Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996 ).”
BackgroundTemporal Relationship Between Cognitive and Physical Performance in Middle-Aged to Oldest Old People
Stijntjes, M., Aartsen, M., Taekema, D. G., Gussekloo, J., Huisman, M. A., Meskers, C. G. M., de Craen, A. J. M., & Maier, A. B. (2016) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glw133 · Cited by 53
“Cross-lagged panel models are a specific type of structural equation models, that is, models allowing to estimate a number of regression equations simultaneously (23).”
BackgroundOccupational self-efficacy and work engagement as moderators in the stressor-detachment model
Clauß, E., Hoppe, A., Schachler, V., & O’Shea, D. E. (2020) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2020.1743790 · Cited by 59
Individual antecedents of bullying
Einarsen, S., & Zapf, D. (2002) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9780203164662.pt3 · Cited by 55
Self-citationWork–family interference, psychological distress, and workplace injuries
Turner, N., Hershcovis, M. S., Reich, T. C., & Totterdell, P. (2014) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12071 · Cited by 57
Jenny, G. J., Brauchli, R., Inauen, A., Füllemann, D., Fridrich, A., & Bauer, G. F. (2014) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dat091 · Cited by 52
“Moreover, such research is often limited to short follow-up periods such as 3–12 months (Zapf et al., 1996), leaving long-term effects as well as the routinization of the interventions unnoticed [cf. (Taris and Kompier, 2003)].”
BackgroundOrganizational Characteristics as Predictors of Nurses’ Psychological Work Reactions
Tummers, G. E. R., van Merode, G. G., & Landeweerd, J. A. (2006) · Organization Studies · doi:10.1177/0170840605059455 · Cited by 50
“Therefore, one must be cautious when interpreting them as causal (e.g. Zapf et al. 1996).”
BackgroundJensen, M. T., & Knudsen, K. (2016) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2016.1197206 · Cited by 62
“According to Zapf, Dormann, and Frese (1996), employees’ strain can affect their perceptions of job demands.”
BackgroundResultVeenstra, M., Moum, T., & Røysamb, E. (2005) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-004-0015-8 · Cited by 52
“Using procedures to control for confounding variables, even if these variables are unknown, would prevent the manifestation of spurious relationships [23].”
BackgroundInfluentialKelly, R. E., Wood, A. M., & Mansell, W. (2013) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610212001391 · Cited by 53
“Thus, the analysis predicts residualized changes in the outcome variable over time, or the variance in the Time 2 level of the variable that is not shared with Time 1 (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundNielsen, M. B., Skogstad, A., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2015) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.08.003 · Cited by 60
Reine, I., Novo, M., & Hammarström, A. (2008) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-8-159 · Cited by 52
“However, our study could not verify that the other variable in the strain model – low control, was related to the outcome variable [21].”
BackgroundHystad, S. W., Nielsen, M. B., & Eid, J. (2017) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2017.08.003 · Cited by 50
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Work Locus of Control Scale
Oliver, J. E., Jose, P. E., & Brough, P. A. (2006) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164405285544 · Cited by 48
Boudrias, J., Morin, A. J. S., & Lajoie, D. (2014) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12056 · Cited by 49
Fløvik, L., Knardahl, S., & Christensen, J. O. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.3777 · Cited by 58
“Vulnerability models posit that the individual can become more vulnerable following repeated exposure to a stressor, as it drains the individual’s coping resources and over time could make the individual less capable of coping (66, 67).”
BackgroundPachler, D., Kuonath, A., & Frey, D. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.12.004 · Cited by 60
Better safe than sorry: Methods for risk assessment of psychosocial hazards
Metzler, Y. A., von Groeling-Müller, G., & Bellingrath, S. (2019) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2019.01.003 · Cited by 61
Houkes, I., Janssen, P. P. M., JONGE, J. D., & Bakker, A. B. (2003) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.8.1.20 · Cited by 48
Start Small, not Random: Why does Justifying your Time-Lag Matter?
Griep, Y., Vranjes, I., Kraak, J., Dudda, L. A., & Li, Y. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.42 · Cited by 45
“Although repeatedmeasurement studies are on the rise, little attention (for some exceptions with regard to traditional longitudinal studies see Dormann & Griffin, 2015; Zapf et al., 1996) has been devoted to the question of how long time-lags should be.”
BackgroundEib, C., Bernhard‐Oettel, C., Hanson, L. L. M., & Leineweber, C. (2018) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000115 · Cited by 50
“There are notions that cross-lagged designs include control for previous levels of variables, thereby innately controlling for the influence of background variables (Zapf et al., 1996).”
Huo, M., Boxall, P., & Cheung, G. W. (2019) · Economic and Industrial Democracy · doi:10.1177/0143831x19890678 · Cited by 62
“In addition, the two wellbeing outcomes (i.e. physical health and job satisfaction) at time 1 were controlled for in order to rule out spuriousness explanations (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialSale, C., Guppy, A., & Elsayed, M. (2000) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/001401300750004096 · Cited by 46
“…explanation for such contradictory results within two similar student samples, it is clear from a number of studies (Daniels and Guppy 1994, Zapf et al. 1996) that the stability, as well as the interpretability, of relationships among measures in such studies would be better achieved with…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialStatus inconsistency: an antecedent to bullying behaviour in groups
Heames, J. T., Harvey, M. G., & Treadway, D. C. (2006) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585190500404952 · Cited by 46
“Bullying, can be one of the most problematic interpersonal conflict behaviours found in groups, while it is not new, it is being perpetuated by today's hypercompetitive business environment and modern day occupational pressures and stress (Luzio-Lockett, 1995 ; Zapf, 1996 ; Einarsen, 1999 ; Crawford, 1999 ; Tepper, 20…”
BackgroundReciprocal Relationships Between Job Demands, Job Resources, and Recovery Opportunities
Rodríguez‐Muñoz, A., Sanz‐Vergel, A. I., Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2012) · Journal of Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000049 · Cited by 53
Verbruggen, M., & van Emmerik, H. (2018) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206318801998 · Cited by 49
Hoppmann, C. A., & Klumb, P. L. (2006) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000238232.46870.f1 · Cited by 46
“This approach complements the work of researchers who, to avoid problems of circularity, focus on concrete situational characteristics or working conditions (35).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Zapf, D., Dormann, C., & Frese, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- Venue
- Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 145-169
- ISSN
- 1076-8998 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1307
- OpenAlex
- W2121908317
- Cited by
- 1,174
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 24.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
- Keywords
- organizational stress, longitudinal study, reverse causality, social desirability, negative affectivity, panel design, longitudinal analysis, causal inference
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Psychology, Industrial, Research Design, Stress, Psychological, Occupational Health, Workload
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