Cited by 1,174Workplace Health and Well-beingStress and Burnout ResearchJob Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior

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Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: a review of the literature with reference to methodological issues

Zapf, Dieter, Dormann, Christian, Frese, Michael·1996·Journal of Occupational Health Psychology

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Abstract

Demonstrating causal relationships has been of particular importance in organizational stress research. Longitudinal studies are typically suggested to overcome problems of reversed causation and third variables (e.g., social desirability and negative affectivity). This article reviews the empirical longitudinal literature and discusses designs and statistical methods used in these studies. Forty-three longitudinal field reports on organizational stress were identified. Most of the investigations used a 2-wave panel design and a hierarchical multiple regression approach. Six studies with 3 and more waves were found. About 50% of the studies analyzed potential strain-stressor (reversed causation) relationships. In about 33% of the studies there was some evidence of reverse causation. The power of longitudinal studies to rule out third variable explanations was not realized in many studies. Procedures of how to analyze longitudinal data are suggested.

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“We should note that although previous research has examined target personality as a potential cause of victimization, most of this research has used non-experimental and cross-sectional designs (Aquino & Thau, 2009 ; Bowling & Beehr, 2006 ; Rayner & Keashly, 2005 ; Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996 ; Zapf & Einarsen, 2003…”
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“Given past research showing that WFC is prospectively related to physical symptoms (Frone et al., 1997), this study indicates that reverse causation may be producing part of this effect, given that physical symptoms also predict increased WFC (see Zapf et al., 1996).”
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Background
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“It increases the reliability of the results if a control group is included in the study, and this may indicate whether other factors in the work environment have had an impact on the health outcomes (Zapf et al., 1996).”
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Background
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BackgroundInfluential
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Self-citation
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Background
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“Step 2 contained the corresponding Time 1 dependent variable, that is, WHI (see Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethod
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Background
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Background
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“Moreover, our results could perhaps have been affected by the fairly low Cronbach’s alpha for the perpetrators’ reports of bullying measurement, which was below the .70 cut-off recommended by Nunnally and Berstein (1994) and may have reduced the correlations with predictors (Zapf et al., 1996b).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
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“as reversed effects have historically been somewhat overlooked (13, 14).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“Conversely, the effects of smoking and drinking on health may only become noticeable after a period of prolonged exposure, and the 2-year interval employed in the present study may have been too short for detecting such effects [33].”
Background
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“…(ii) the potential that some relationships among variables might exist only within particular sub-groups of individuals, and (iii) the socalled healthy worker effect, in which people who are severely impacted by the stressor under consideration may leave the work force (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundResult
Moderating effects of appreciation on relationships between illegitimate tasks and intrinsic motivation: a two-wave shortitudinal study
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“In our setting, poorly intrinsically motivated employees might be negatively biased and perceive more stressors in their environment (Daniels & Guppy, 1997; Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Employee Happiness: Why We Should Care
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“Therefore, whilst this study diverges from an estimated 90% of occupational health studies, which are solely cross-sectional in design (Zapf et al. 1996), added data-points would have provided increased evidence for the causality of each relationship presented in this study (i.”
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Bonde, J. P., Gullander, M., Hansen, Å. M., Grynderup, M. B., Persson, R., Høgh, A., Willert, M. V., Kærlev, L., Rugulies, R., & Kolstad, H. A. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.3539 · Cited by 80
“Studies addressing causal links between self-reported exposures and outcomes often try to counter the risk of common method bias by adjusting for personality traits such as neuroticism (28).”
Method
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“When followup exposures are assessed (model 1b, figure 1), dose burden, peak-exposure period or cumula tive exposure models can be developed (24).”
Background
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Background
Occupational coping self-efficacy explains distress and well-being in nurses beyond psychosocial job characteristics
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“A carefully designed longitudinal study, with appropriate time intervals (cf. Zapf et al., 1996) could provide further insight into the causal processes involved.”
Background
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Gullander, M., Høgh, A., Hansen, Å. M., Persson, R., Rugulies, R., Kolstad, H. A., Thomsen, J. F., Willert, M. V., Grynderup, M. B., Mors, O. N., et al. (2014) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000339 · Cited by 83
Reciprocal relations between workplace bullying, anxiety, and vigor: a two-wave longitudinal study
Rodríguez‐Muñoz, A., Jiménez, B. M., & Sanz‐Vergel, A. I. (2015) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1016003 · Cited by 79
The Reciprocal Relationship Between Work Characteristics and Employee Burnout and Engagement: A Longitudinal Study of Firefighters
Ângelo, R. P., & Chambel, M. J. (2013) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2532 · Cited by 91
Shortcomings of antibullying regulations: The case of Sweden
Hoel, H., & Einarsen, S. V. (2009) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320802643665 · Cited by 78
“Moreover, according to several informants, in the downsized organizations there is also less opportunity to protect vulnerable people against attacks from tormentors and less time to resolve cases (see also Zapf, Doorman, & Frese, 1996 ).”
Background
Timing in Methods for Studying Psychosocial Factors at Work
Dormann, C., & de Ven, B. V. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8975-2_4 · Cited by 86
Self-citation
Is too much work engagement detrimental? Linear or curvilinear effects on mental health and job performance
Shimazu, A., Schaufeli, W. B., Kubota, K., Watanabe, K., & Kawakami, N. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208684 · Cited by 97
Personality, Stress, and Coping
Semmer, N. K. (2006) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470713860.ch4 · Cited by 83
Can servant leadership prevent hotel employee depression during the COVID-19 pandemic? A mediating and multigroup analysis
Ruiz‐Palomino, P., Yáñez‐Araque, B., Estévez, P. J., & Gutiérrez-Broncano, S. (2021) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121192 · Cited by 84
“In this sense, previous studies demonstrate that supervisor support has a highly beneficial effect on employee health outcomes, particularly in reducing depression (Dorman and Zapf, 1996; Netterstrøm et al., 2008).”
Result
Work orientations in the job demands‐resources model
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Fried, Y. (2012) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683941211252428 · Cited by 99
“Conversely, job strain has been found to influence job demands over time (Zapf et al., 1996), suggesting reversed causal relationships between working conditions and strain.”
Background
Personal Goal Facilitation through Work: Implications for Employee Satisfaction and Well‐Being
ter Doest, L., Maes, S., Gebhardt, W. A., & Koelewijn, H. (2006) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00232.x · Cited by 82
Health and well‐being in care staff and their relations to organizational and psychosocial factors, care staff and resident factors in nursing homes
Testad, I., Mikkelsen, A., Ballard, C. G., & Aarsland, D. (2009) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.2419 · Cited by 87
“Factors such as professional support, promotional opportunities and employment availability are associ- Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2010; 25: 789–797. ated with job satisfaction and turn-over (Zapf et al., 1996; Chou et al., 2002; Castle et al., 2006).”
Background
Work‐related stress and well‐being: The roles of direct action coping and palliative coping
Fortes‐Ferreira, L., Silla, J. M. P., González‐Morales, M. G., & MARTÍN, I. (2006) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00519.x · Cited by 77
Professional efficacy, exhaustion, and work characteristics among police officers: A longitudinal test of the learning‐related predictions of the demand—control model
Taris, T. W., Kompier, M. A. J., Geurts, S. A. E., Houtman, I. L. D., & Heuvel, F. F. M. V. D. (2009) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317909x424583 · Cited by 76
Job insecurity and the benefits of work
Selenko, E., & Batinic, B. (2012) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2012.703376 · Cited by 74
“Besides controlling for the demographic variables and job deterioration, both analyses also controlled for prior levels of mental health at T1 (eg, Cohen et al, 2003 ; Cole & Maxwell, 2003 ; Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996 ).”
Method
Participants' accounts of a stress management intervention
Randall, R., Cox, T., & Griffiths, A. (2007) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726707081660 · Cited by 81
“Since intervention effect sizes are likely to be modest at best (Zapf et al., 1996), it is crucial that data on intervention processes and context are gathered and used to inform outcome evaluation (Lipsey, 1996).”
Background
Specific determinants of burnout among male and female general practitioners: A cross‐lagged panel analysis
Houkes, I., Winants, Y., & Twellaar, M. (2007) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317907x218197 · Cited by 80
Determinants of students’ innovation in Higher Education
Martín, P., Potočnik, K., & Fras, A. (2015) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2015.1087993 · Cited by 88
The Longitudinal Effects of Perceived Age Discrimination on the Job Satisfaction and Work Withdrawal of Older Employees
Griffin, B., Bayl‐Smith, P., & Hesketh, B. L. (2016) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/waw014 · Cited by 75
Do the Effects of Job Stressors on Health Persist Over Time? A Longitudinal Study With Observational Stressor Measures.
Leitner, K., & Resch, M. (2005) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.10.1.18 · Cited by 74
Surviving repeated waves of organizational downsizing: The recency, duration, and order effects associated with different forms of layoff contact
Moore, S. Y., Grunberg, L., & Greenberg, E. S. (2006) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615800600901341 · Cited by 73
“…argues that repeated exposure to a given stressor wears one down over time, whereas a resiliency model posits that one develops coping responses and becomes somewhat inured to the effects of a repeated stressor exposure (Carver, 1998; Dougall et al., 2000; Frese & Zapf, 1988; Zapf et al., 1996).”
Background
Investigating effort–reward imbalance and work–family conflict in relation to morningness–eveningness and shift work
Willis, T. A., O'Connor, D. B., & Smith, L. (2008) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678370802180558 · Cited by 72
“Many studies investigating stress and health are cross-sectional and weaknesses of this type of design are well documented (Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996 ).”
Background
Selection, Socialisation, and Mutual Adaptation: Resolving Discrepancies Between People and Work
Semmer, N. K., & Schallberger, U. (1996) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00768.x · Cited by 75
Compensating losses in bridge employment? Examining relations between compensation strategies, health problems, and intention to remain at work
Müller, A., De Lange, A., Weigl, M., Oxfart, C., & Van der Heijden, B. (2013) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.002 · Cited by 72
Effort‐reward‐imbalance, overcommitment and self‐reported health: Is it the interaction that matters?
Preckel, D., Meinel, M., Kudielka, B. M., Haug, H., & Fischer, J. E. (2006) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317905x80183 · Cited by 75
Organizational Climate, Occupational Stress, and Employee Mental Health
Arnetz, B. B., Lucas, T., & Arnetz, J. E. (2010) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e3181ffo5b · Cited by 73
What’s organization knowledge management strategy for successful change implementation?
Imran, M. K., Rehman, C. A., Aslam, U., & Bilal, A. R. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Change Management · doi:10.1108/jocm-07-2015-0130 · Cited by 78

Authors: Zapf, D., Dormann, C., & Frese, M.
Affiliations: University of Konstanz (DE)
ORCID: Zapf, Dieter
Dormann, Christian
Venue: Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 1
Issue: 2
Pages: 145-169
ISSN: 1076-8998 (ISSN-L)
1939-1307
DOI: 10.1037/1076-8998.1.2.145
OpenAlex: W2121908317
Cited by: 1,174
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 24.48
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
Keywords: organizational stress, longitudinal study, reverse causality, social desirability, negative affectivity, panel design, longitudinal analysis, causal inference
MeSH terms: Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Psychology, Industrial, Research Design, Stress, Psychological, Occupational Health, Workload

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Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: a review of the literature with reference to methodological issues

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