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Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: a review of the literature with reference to methodological issues
Abstract
Demonstrating causal relationships has been of particular importance in organizational stress research. Longitudinal studies are typically suggested to overcome problems of reversed causation and third variables (e.g., social desirability and negative affectivity). This article reviews the empirical longitudinal literature and discusses designs and statistical methods used in these studies. Forty-three longitudinal field reports on organizational stress were identified. Most of the investigations used a 2-wave panel design and a hierarchical multiple regression approach. Six studies with 3 and more waves were found. About 50% of the studies analyzed potential strain-stressor (reversed causation) relationships. In about 33% of the studies there was some evidence of reverse causation. The power of longitudinal studies to rule out third variable explanations was not realized in many studies. Procedures of how to analyze longitudinal data are suggested.
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“Longitudinal designs provide stronger evidence, but are prone to residual confounding [[36], [37], [38]] and other forms of bias that limit causal inference [[39], [40], [41], [42], [43]].”
From Improving sleep quality leads to better mental health: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (2021) · cites this paper as [38]
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Lin, X., & Leung, K. Y. (2010) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726709342930 · Cited by 47
“Our longitudinal design provides an effective way to test such reciprocal relationships (Cole and Maxwell, 2003; Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundEmotionale Arbeitsanforderungen und ihre Konsequenzen bei Call Center-Arbeitsplätzen
Dormann, C., Zapf, D., & Isic, A. (2002) · Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O · doi:10.1026//0932-4089.46.4.201 · Cited by 47
Self-citationContract type, perceived mobility and optimism as antecedents of perceived employability
Kirves, K., Kinnunen, U. M., & Cuyper, N. D. (2013) · Economic and Industrial Democracy · doi:10.1177/0143831x13486702 · Cited by 47
“Although an optimal follow-up period is difficult to define theoretically (Zapf et al., 1996), the one-year time lag is considered to be sufficient to reveal the effects of optimism and perceived mobility on PE based on a previous study on cross-lagged relationships between self-efficacy and PE…”
MethodA two wave cross‐lagged study of work‐role conflict, work‐family conflict and emotional exhaustion
Jensen, M. T. (2016) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12328 · Cited by 49
Hur, W., Moon, T., & Lee, J.-H. (2020) · Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics · doi:10.1108/apjml-03-2019-0138 · Cited by 54
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Örtqvist, D., & Wincent, J. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00621.x · Cited by 45
The impact of preventive coping on business travelers' work and private life
Niessen, C., Müller, T., Hommelhoff, S., & Westman, M. (2017) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2215 · Cited by 45
Strengthening the employment relationship: The effects of work-hours fit on key employee attitudes
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“about the “right” length of time lags in longitudinal research examining attitudinal variables (de Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman, & Bongers, 2004; Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996); yet we do know that time lags must be long enough for the causal variables to affect their consequences (Dormann & Zapf, 2002), but not so l…”
BackgroundCan managers coach their teams too much?
Buljac‐Samardžić, M., & van Woerkom, M. (2015) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-12-2012-0380 · Cited by 50
“Also, a one-year interval makes certain that seasonal influences are stable (Zapf et al., 1996).”
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Gorgievski, M. J., Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., & van der Heijden, P. G. M. (2005) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/1076-8998.10.3.210 · Cited by 44
“…1986; Glickman, Tanaka, & Chan, 1991; Hamilton, Hoffman, Broman, & Rauma, 1993; Jonge et al., 2001; Taris, 1999; Taris, Bok, & Caljé, 1998; Zapf et al., 1996), in the case that people can be expected to actually influence the occurrence of these stressors (Beehr, Jex, Stacy, & Murray,…”
BackgroundRaeve, L. D., Kant, I., Jansen, N., Vasse, R. M., & van den Brandt, P. A. (2008) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.05.007 · Cited by 43
“the work situation, has hardly been examined so far [11,12].”
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Effects of Job Insecurity From a Workplace Closure Threat on Fatigue and Psychological Distress
Swaen, G. M. H., Bültmann, U., Kant, I., & van Amelsvoort, L. G. P. M. (2004) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000126024.14847.f8 · Cited by 43
Tucker, J. S., Sinclair, R. R., Mohr, C. D., Adler, A. B., Thomas, J. L., & Salvi, A. D. (2008) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678370802190383 · Cited by 49
“For example, depressed workers may either perceive the work environment more negatively or drift to a more negative work environment (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialAssociations Between Positive Changes in Perceived Work Characteristics and Changes in Fatigue
Janssen, N., & Nijhuis, F. J. N. (2004) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000135608.82039.fa · Cited by 45
“One-year follow ups are frequently applied in occupational– psychologic studies.(23) At T3, ie, 1 year after T0, a total of 9655 respondents completed the questionnaire (79.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe psychosocial environment: towards an agenda for research
Kelloway, E. K., Teed, M., & Kelley, E. (2008) · International Journal of Workplace Health Management · doi:10.1108/17538350810865596 · Cited by 42
“Measurement errors and third-variable effects continue to adversely affect researchers who use longitudinal research designs (see for example, Zapf et al. , 1996”
BackgroundAustralian Lawyer Well-being: Workplace Demands, Resources and the Impact of Time-billing Targets
Bergin, A. J., & Jimmieson, N. L. (2013) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2013.822783 · Cited by 52
Spector, P. E., Yang, L., & Zhou, Z. E. (2015) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2015.1076537 · Cited by 42
“Furthermore, the study of new nurses follows the suggestion by Zapf et al. (1996) that determining the impact of stressors on employees is best done by sampling newly hired employees who have not yet adapted to the stressors on the job.”
BackgroundPerceiving a Calling as a Predictor of Future Work Attitudes: The Moderating Role of Meaningful Work
Sawhney, G., Britt, T. W., & Wilson, C. A. (2019) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072719848981 · Cited by 45
Peters, V., Houkes, I., de Rijk, A. E., Bohle, P. L., Engels, J. A., & Nijhuis, F. J. N. (2016) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2016.01.008 · Cited by 47
“Because it is difficult to interpret multiplicative raction terms in longitudinal research (De Jonge, 5; Houkes, 2002) an incomplete two-wave panel ign was used (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundNielsen, M. B., Skogstad, A., Gjerstad, J., & Einarsen, S. V. (2019) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2018.1528307 · Cited by 41
“the effects appear a long time after exposure to the stressor (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundPredictors of Cultural Adjustment: Intergroup Status Relations and Boundary Permeability
Terry, D. J., Pelly, R. N., Lalonde, R. N., & Smith, J. R. (2006) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430206062080 · Cited by 41
“Measures of initial adjustment were also obtained at Time 1. Even in a longitudinal design, evidence of a relationship between a predictor and an outcome variable obtained at a subsequent point in time may reflect response consistency effects associated with the influence of stable dispositional variables (see Zapf, D…”
BackgroundTeam Climate and Procedural Justice as Predictors of Occupational Strain1
Elovainio, M. J., Kivimauki, M., Eccles, M., & Sinervo, T. S. (2002) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00220.x · Cited by 41
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Shirom, A., Toker, S., Berliner, S. A., & Shapira, I. (2008) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678370802180830 · Cited by 40
“This general structure of multiple regression equations is advantageous in that the predictors are related to a change in each of the criteria (Zapf, Dormann, & Frese, 1996 ) from T1 to T2.”
BackgroundAfota, M., Provost Savard, Y., Léon, E., & Ollier‐Malaterre, A. (2024) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12494 · Cited by 40
Ulhassan, W., Schwarz, U. V. T., Thor, J., & Westerlund, H. (2014) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/1472-6963-14-480 · Cited by 39
“Using data solely based on personal statements and reports may lead to ‘common method bias’ [29] which may be avoided by using other data sources in addition to self-reports [28].”
BackgroundMethodElfering, A., Gerhardt, C., Grebner, S., & Müller, U. (2016) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2016.06.003 · Cited by 46
“Amajor limitationwas that we did not have longitudinal data that allowed us to test causation, and reverse and reciprocal causation, which cannot be excluded as the alternative model showed for social support [55].”
BackgroundDietz, C., & Scheel, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01885 · Cited by 42
“…can trigger a health impairing and therefore presenteeism provoking process via job strain (Demerouti et al., 2009; Miraglia and Johns, 2015) and changed perceptions of the working environment (Zapf et al., 1996), whereas job resources may have motivational character (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007).”
BackgroundHan, Y., Kim, Y., & Hur, W. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-0133-7 · Cited by 50
Zellars, K. L., Hochwarter, W. A., Lanivich, S. E., Perrewé, P. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2010) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/2044-8325.002004 · Cited by 39
Mathisen, L., Andersen, M. H., Veenstra, M., et al. (2007) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/1477-7525-5-27 · Cited by 39
Cross-lagged relationships between career aspirations and goal orientation in early adolescents
Creed, P. A., Tilbury, C., Buys, N. J., & Crawford, M. (2010) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.09.010 · Cited by 46
“…are required to comprehensively assess these competing longitudinal models, as all three types of causal relationships can be distinguished and assessed (de Jonge, Dormann, Janssen, Dollard, Landeweerd, & Nijhuis, 2001; de Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman, & Bongers, 2003; Zapf et al., 1996).”
O’Donnell, E., Landolt, K., Hazi, A., Dragano, N., & Wright, B. J. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.09.017 · Cited by 46
Veterinary nurses' psychological well‐being: The impact of patient suffering and death
Deacon, R. E., & Brough, P. A. (2016) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12119 · Cited by 39
Marco, D. D., López-Cabrera, R., Arenas, A., Giorgi, G., Arcangeli, G., & Mucci, N. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01313 · Cited by 38
Bergs, Y., Hoofs, H., Kant, I., Slangen, J. J. M., & Jansen, N. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.3658 · Cited by 38
“The availability of three-wave measurement data helped to test the dynamics of the associations over a longer period of time and to elucidate a reciprocal association (21).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe motivational benefits of specific versus general optimism
Schmitt, A., Gielnik, M. M., Zacher, H., & Klemann, D. K. (2013) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2013.820338 · Cited by 44
“On the other hand, Zapf et al. (1996) noted that time lags that are too long tend to underestimate true effects.”
BackgroundInfluentialErhart, R., Mahlendorf, M. D., Reimer, M., & Schäffer, U. (2017) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/j.aos.2017.07.004 · Cited by 39
Development of perceived job insecurity among young workers: a latent class growth analysis
Klug, K., Bernhard‐Oettel, C., Mäkikangas, A., Kinnunen, U. M., & Sverke, M. (2019) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-019-01429-0 · Cited by 36
“Both parallel developments of perceived job insecurity and outcomes, but also delayed responses, may arise (Kinnunen et al. 2014; Zapf et al. 1996).”
BackgroundJunker, N. M., Kaluza, A. J., Häusser, J. A., Mojzisch, A., van Dick, R., Knoll, M., & Demerouti, E. (2020) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12252 · Cited by 43
Gusy, B., Lesener, T., & Wolter, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.653440 · Cited by 36
“most common time lag for longitudinal studies in organizational psychology (44).”
BackgroundViotti, S., Essenmacher, L., Hamblin, L. E., & Arnetz, J. E. (2018) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2018.1436615 · Cited by 40
“In their review, Zapf, Dormann, and Frese (1996) identified 6 out of 16 longitudinal studies, which showed reversed causal relationships between working conditions and strain.”
BackgroundPortoghese, I., Galletta, M., Larkin, P. J., Sardo, S., Campagna, M., Finco, G., & d’Aloja, E. (2020) · BMC Palliative Care · doi:10.1186/s12904-020-0531-5 · Cited by 38
Leineweber, C., Bernhard‐Oettel, C., Eib, C., Peristera, P., & Li, J. (2021) · Journal of Occupational Health · doi:10.1002/1348-9585.12203 · Cited by 36
Christensen, J. O., & Knardahl, S. (2012) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2012.07.009 · Cited by 36
“If the effect occurs when exposure is no longer present (a ‘‘sleeper effect’’ [57]) and the time lag is appropriate, a 2-wave cross-lagged analysis gives an unbiased estimate of causal effect.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRandomised Controlled Trials in WOHP Interventions: A Review and Guidelines for Use
O’Shea, D. E., Connell, B. O., & Gallagher, S. M. (2015) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12053 · Cited by 35
Ma, J., & Liu, C. (2018) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-11-2017-0140 · Cited by 41
Willis, L., Reynolds, K. J., & Lee, E. (2019) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2019.1587409 · Cited by 39
“As previously mentioned, only approximately 10% of past research in the organizational and social identification health fields have conducted longitudinal research (Steffens et al., 2017; Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe interplay of job demands, job resources and cognitive outcomes in informatics
de Ven, B. V., Vlerick, P., & JONGE, J. D. (2008) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1192 · Cited by 35
Griep, Y., Hyde, M., Vantilborgh, T., Bidee, J., Witte, H. D., & Pepermans, R. (2014) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038342 · Cited by 34
Krämer, T., Schneider, A., Spieß, E., Angerer, P., & Weigl, M. (2016) · International Journal for Quality in Health Care · doi:10.1093/intqhc/mzw119 · Cited by 36
“High stability and ‘multifactorial determination’ of strain variables [31] often result in the predictor’s failure to account for additional variance in the outcome strain variable [27].”
BackgroundResultSchneider, A., Hornung, S., Weigl, M., Glaser, J., & Angerer, P. (2017) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2017.1347561 · Cited by 44
“While some focussed on employee behaviour and its consequences, for example, the drift hypothesis and upward selection process (Zapf et al., 1996), others emphasized altered subjective appraisals of the work environment, that is, gloomy and rosy perception hypotheses (de Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman, & Bongers, 2005…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialElst, T. V., Notelaers, G., & Skogstad, A. (2017) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2250 · Cited by 34
Performance shaping factors dependence assessment through moderating and mediating effect analysis
Wang, L., Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Pan, X., & Zhang, W. (2020) · Reliability Engineering & System Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ress.2020.107034 · Cited by 35
Arbeit und Gesundheit: Konzepte und Ergebnisse der arbeitspsychologischen Streßforschung
Semmer, N. K., & Mohr, G. (2001) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026//0033-3042.52.3.150 · Cited by 34
Feuerhahn, N., Bellingrath, S., & Kudielka, B. M. (2013) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12002 · Cited by 44
Mansell, A., & Brough, P. A. (2005) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/10519990500048579 · Cited by 35
Sianoja, M., Kinnunen, U. M., Mäkikangas, A., & Tolvanen, A. J. (2018) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2018.1437232 · Cited by 44
Veth, K. N., HEIJDEN, B. I. J. M. V. D., Korzilius, H. P. L. M., de Lange, A. H., & Emans, B. J. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00574 · Cited by 34
“To test the research hypotheses a number of competing models were fitted to the data consecutively by means of a crosslagged structural (Zapf et al., 1996) equation model approach.”
BackgroundMethodTrajectories of insecurity: Young adults' employment entry, health and well-being
Klug, K., Drobnič, S., & Brockmann, H. (2019) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.05.005 · Cited by 28
Falkenberg, H., Näswall, K., Sverke, M., & Sjöberg, A. (2009) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317908x289990 · Cited by 33
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“Future research should identify the most appropriate time interval for this phenomenon by comparing different time-lag models, and also use three or more time points (Cole & Maxwell, 2003; Zapf et al., 1996).”
Osei, H. V., Osei-Kwame, D., & Amaniampong, L. O. (2016) · International Journal of Healthcare Management · doi:10.1080/20479700.2016.1268798 · Cited by 38
“However, a longitudinal study has it methodological pitfalls and may not prove causality in itself.(190) Another limitation with this study was the cross- sectional nature of the study which is the concern of common method var-”
BackgroundDaniels, K. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119992592.ch1 · Cited by 33
Job Insecurity and Its Consequences: Investigating Moderators, Mediators and Gender
Richter, A. (2011) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e530402013-001 · Cited by 35
Contribution of Psychological, Social, and Mechanical Work Exposures to Low Work Ability
Emberland, J. S., & Knardahl, S. (2014) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000353 · Cited by 32
Pignata, S., Winefield, A. H., Provis, C., & Boyd, C. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01271 · Cited by 34
“As prior levels of procedural justice at T1 were included as additional predictors in the analysis, tests of the aforementioned relationships are more rigorous as they show that the predictors account for changes in the levels of the dependent variables (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundDormann, C., Owen, M. S., Dollard, M. F., & Guthier, C. (2017) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2017.1395926 · Cited by 32
“Kessler & Greenberg, 1981), (2) more valid information about possible causal relations between risk factors and their consequences (Zapf et al., 1996) and (3) additional information about the rate of change over time (Finkel, 1995).”
BackgroundSelf-citationJob strain and psychological distress in office workers: The role of coping
Jun, D., O’Leary, S. P., McPhail, S., & Johnston, V. (2019) · Work · doi:10.3233/pwor-192968 · Cited by 38
“Psychological distress is multifactorial incorporating physical, mental and psychosomatic factors [41, 42].”
Afota, M., Robert, V., & Vandenberghe, C. (2020) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2020.1858806 · Cited by 37
“Our analyses controlled for the autoregressive effects of workaholism and job strain, rendering the control of stable variables such as demographics and personality traits unnecessary (Zapf et al., 1996).”
MethodYücel, D., & Borgmann, L.-S. (2021) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102684 · Cited by 32
Mental health issues in Chinese offshore oil workers
Chen, W. Q., Wong, T. W., & Yu, T.-H. (2009) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqp118 · Cited by 32
Riedel, N., Müller, A., & Ebener, M. (2015) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000402 · Cited by 32
Tolentino, L. R., Garcia, P., Restubog, S. L. D., Scott, K. L., & Aquino, K. F. (2016) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21791 · Cited by 33
Emotional dissonance and sickness absence: a prospective study of employees working with clients
Indregard, A.-M. R., Knardahl, S., & Nielsen, M. B. (2016) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-016-1176-9 · Cited by 42
“The causes of sickness absence are multifactorial; therefore, one cannot expect one factor to explain a large proportion of the variance in sickness absence (Zapf et al. 1996).”
Dagenais‐Desmarais, V., Leclerc, J.-S., & Londei-Shortall, J. (2017) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2017.1317880 · Cited by 43
“third variable) for the observed effect (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialden Brande, W. V., Baillien, E., Elst, T. V., Witte, H. D., & Godderis, L. (2019) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2019.1666433 · Cited by 31
Klebe, L., Klug, K., & Felfe, J. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O · doi:10.1026/0932-4089/a000369 · Cited by 31
Prioridades axiológicas, atividade física e estresse ocupacional
Tamayo, Á. (2001) · Revista de Administração Contemporânea · doi:10.1590/s1415-65552001000300007 · Cited by 31
Milner, A. J., Aitken, Z., Kavanagh, A. M., LaMontagne, A. D., & Petrie, D. (2016) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2016-103762 · Cited by 30
Providing Service During a Merger: The Role of Organizational Goal Clarity and Servant Leadership
Heine, E. C. E., Stouten, J., & Liden, R. C. (2022) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-022-05162-6 · Cited by 43
“Also, the 7-month time lag between waves was of sufficient length that independent effects can be assumed and that possible common method bias was minimized (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Zapf et al., 1996).”
Bored or burning out? Reciprocal effects between job stressors, boredom and burnout
Harju, L. K., Hootegem, A. V., & Witte, H. D. (2022) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2022.103807 · Cited by 42
Cieślak, R., Knoll, N., & Łuszczyńska, A. (2007) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.03.001 · Cited by 30
“Personality variables may constitute a group of the third variables in relations between work characteristics (demands, control, and support) and wellbeing (cf. Zapf et al., 1996); such third variables affect all variables in the model.”
BackgroundTucker, M. K., Jimmieson, N. L., & Oei, T. P. S. (2013) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2013.772356 · Cited by 37
“Some even argue that the results of such analyses may be attributable to the measurement method rather than the focal variables of the study (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986; Spector & Brannick, 1995; Zapf et al., 1996).”
ResultWork stress and negative affectivity: a multi-method study
Falco, A., Girardi, D., Marcuzzo, G., CARLO, A. D., & Bartolucci, G. B. (2013) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqt054 · Cited by 31
“From an empirical point of view both NA and interpersonal conflict would need to be measured on two different occasions in order to address the problem of reverse causation [30].”
BackgroundPignata, S., Winefield, A. H., Provis, C., & Boyd, C. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01225 · Cited by 30
“…trust in senior management, perceived procedural justice) were included as additional predictors in the analysis, tests of the abovementioned relationships are rigorous as they show that the predictors account for changes over time in the levels of the dependent variables (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodHill, K. M., Chênevert, D., & Poitras, J. (2015) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-11-2013-0091 · Cited by 37
Does job complexity mitigate the negative effect of emotion-rule dissonance on employee burnout?
Kubicek, B., & Korunka, C. (2015) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2015.1074954 · Cited by 29
“be positively related to Time 2 emotional exhaustion and Time 2 depersonalization, respectively, we specified competing latent structural models (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundLaethem, M. V., Beckers, D. G. J., Geurts, S. A. E., Garefelt, J., Hanson, L. L. M., & Leineweber, C. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-017-9683-y · Cited by 29
“a longer time lag may merely lead to an underestimation of the actual causal effect, whereas a too short time lag may wrongfully indicate that there is no causal effect [28].”
InfluentialSOS—Appreciation overboard! Illegitimacy and psychologists’ job satisfaction
Kottwitz, M. U., Pfister, I. B., Elfering, A., Schummer, S. E., Igic, I., & Otto, K. (2019) · Industrial Health · doi:10.2486/indhealth.2018-0008 · Cited by 32
A process model linking family‐supportive supervision to employee creativity
McKersie, S. J., Matthews, R. A., Smith, C. E., Barratt, C. L., & Hill, R. T. (2019) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12276 · Cited by 30
Living to work: The role of occupational calling in response to challenge and hindrance stressors
Wilson, C. A., & Britt, T. W. (2020) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2020.1743791 · Cited by 32
“The relatively short time interval between the assessment of the stressors and outcome variables was guided by the adoption of a short-term reaction model guiding the relationships between the stressors and outcomes (Zapf et al., 1996).”
MethodHeissler, C., Kern, M., & Ohly, S. (2022) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-021-09781-0 · Cited by 37
“Additionally, conducting a longitudinal autoregressive design is preferable to simple cross-sectional research when the goal is to infer directions of relationships in a field setting (Zapf et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBewältigungsmuster und psychische Gesundheit
Lehr, D., Schmitz, E., & Hillert, A. (2008) · Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O · doi:10.1026/0932-4089.52.1.3 · Cited by 29
Huang, Y., Chen, C.-H., Du, P., & Huang, I. (2011) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2011.610934 · Cited by 35
“For the reversed causation hypothesis, there are at least two groups of explanations: the so-called drift hypothesis and the true strain–stressor hypothesis (Zapf, Dormann and Frese 1996 ).”
BackgroundKonze, A.-K., Rivkin, W., & Schmidt, K. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14121608 · Cited by 39
“For example, Zapf and colleagues [21] suggest several different processes that might account for reciprocal effects (i.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Zapf, D., Dormann, C., & Frese, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- Venue
- Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 145-169
- ISSN
- 1076-8998 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1307
- OpenAlex
- W2121908317
- Cited by
- 1,174
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 24.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
- Keywords
- organizational stress, longitudinal study, reverse causality, social desirability, negative affectivity, panel design, longitudinal analysis, causal inference
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Psychology, Industrial, Research Design, Stress, Psychological, Occupational Health, Workload
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