Cited by 998Psychometric Methodologies and TestingMental Health Research TopicsStatistical Methods and Applications

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Affects of variable and subject sampling on factor pattern recovery.

Velicer, Wayne F., Fava, Joseph L.·1998·Psychological Methods

DOI 10.1037/1082-989x.3.2.231

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“Eight hundred respondents were recruited for this survey, which corresponds to the “rule of thumb” to provide at least 10 respondents per item (Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“A minimum of three items must load significantly on each factor for all of the subscales to be successfully identified (Little, Lindenberger, & Nesselroade, 1999; Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“The findings from Flitcroft et al.’s (2007) study were also likely affected by the very small sample of participants (N = 28), well below the sample suggested as the lowest number acceptable for factor analysis (Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“Therefore, to minimize the problem of a small or medium sample size, the researcher uses moderate communalities of 0.40 or more (Velicer and Fava 1998), and a 0.40 minimum loading of any item (Tabachnick and Fidell 2001).”
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“…silence him/her) and evidence-based guidelines for scale development suggest a minimum of three items per factor to consider a factor interpretable 55 , thus we did not consider Vocalisation as a factor, and eliminated the two items from the EFA and CFA measure but later, we included the total…”
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“Because AVS Factors 3 and 4 and WOSC Factor 7 had only two items with loadings > .40, they were excluded from the analyses and omitted from this table (see Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“Because guidelines for PCA and CFA suggest that factors be comprised of at least three measured indicators (Kenny, Kashy, & Bolger, 1998; Velicer & Fava, 1998), we reran our PCA with these two items removed from the solution.”
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“N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript sciences are low to moderate (0.40-0.70) (Velicer and Fava, 1998), items with communalities less than 0.40 were not included in the current analysis.”
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“…balance the potential effects due to over-extraction of components in light of the limited sample size (Gorush, 1983; Wood, Tatryn, & Gorush, 1996; Velicer & Fava, 1998) and included: 1) the proportion of total item covariance represented by each component; 2) the rate at which that proportion of…”
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“According to Table 6, the number of items each factor in the scale has more than 3 items, which meets the requirement stated by Velicer and Fava (1998).”
Background
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“Parallel analysis (Horn 1965) is an approach of determining the number of factors, and has been recommended to be used to confirm EFA results (Reilly and Eaves 2000, Velicer and Fava 1998; Zwick and Velicer 1986).”
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“…maximum gape angle 0.489 0.719 0.069 Maximum elevation of the neck -0.517 0.200 0.494 Time of maximum neck elevation 0.894 0.004 -0.166 Minimum elbow angle -0.106 -0.329 0.451 Time of minimum elbow angle -0.239 0.871 -0.051 Values in bold represent loadings greater than 0.70 (Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“…tendency to over-factor, we also examined the interpretability of factor solutions, defined as the presence of at least 4 primary loadings (highest loading ≥0.35 and at least 0.10 greater than all other loadings) for each factor (Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999; Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“Considering recommendations of a three-item scale (e.g., Bollen & Lennox, 1991; Costello & Osborne, 2005; Fabrigar et al., 1999; Little et al., 1999; Velicer & Fava, 1998)— and agreements thereto: ‘rule of three’ (Freeze & Raschke, 2007); retaining less than three items is generally weak and…”
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“Nonetheless, considering a non-response rate of 20%, we finalized on using a sample size of 398, which meets the threshold of sample size recommended for studies that employ structural equation modeling (Guilford, 1954; Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“Furthermore, all item communalities ranged between .72 and .89 meeting the criteria of Velicer and Fava (1998).”
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“…convergence problems; in our opinion, this model could be suitable if a longer version of the scale is developed (with at least 2 items for each dimension as suggested by the Classical Theory of Test, e.g. Velicer & Fava, 1998), to capture more nuances of the three content dimensions of meaning.”
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“The sample size of 271 was sufficient for extraction of a possible four factors based on simulation work (Guadagnoli and Velicer 1988; Velicer and Fava 1998).”
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“71 (Excellent),(29) with a minimum of three items loading significantly on each factor to be successfully identified as a factor.(30,31) In terms of loadings that could be considered as “fair” or better (bolded in Table 1), the first factor comprises four items that represent depression TABLE 1.”
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“…also with small sample sizes, and recommendations for factor analysis often relate to high loadings (Guadagnoli & Velicer, 1988) and items per factor (Ding et al., 1995; MacCallum et al., 1999), rather than sample size (Christopher Westland, 2010; Mundfrom et al., 2005; Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
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“The low internal consistency of the fourth and final factor is, we believe, explained by the small number of items that comprise it; ideally, a minimum of three items is required to stably determine a factor (Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
Background
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Self-citation
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“In general, there is a trend toward selecting at least three items per factor; however, this practice could be counterproductive if it determines the results’ stability (Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
Background
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Falade, B. A. (2018) · South African Journal of Science · doi:10.17159/sajs.2018/20170135 · Cited by 9
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“Of the initial six-factor solution, two factors were not retained: one because it contained a single item (suggesting it was not stable) and another because it shared loadings with several factors.(29) Although the fourth factor only contained two items with acceptable loadings, it was retained on the basis that it un…”
Result
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“…7 .865 .837 .510 Organizational Citizenship BehaviorOrganization 6 .901 .914 .682 Organizational Performance 10 .930 .930 .573 Moreover, good factor loadings (above 0.5) are reported on a five-factor model on the criteria of a cut-off value of 0.32 (Velicer & Fava, 1998; Tabachnick& Fidell, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential
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Method
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“The interrogators, lawyers, and suspects were informed that an observer was present in the 12Methodologists advise a minimum of three to four measured variables for each factor (Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
Background
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“At a given sample size, the likelihood that factors are retained by chance alone increases as the number of variables increases (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994; see also Velicer & Fava, 1998).”
Background
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“As a minimum of three indicators per factor is usually required (Velicer & Fava, 1998), we used the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and χ2/df ratio, with values respectively >0.95, <0.08, and <3.00 to indicate adequate fit (Bentler, 1990; Bentler &…”
MethodInfluential
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“A sample size of at least 10 cases for each item is recommended for confirmatory factor analysis [22], and thus Samples 1 and 2”
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Authors: Velicer, W. F., & Fava, J. L.
Affiliations: University of Rhode Island (US)
ORCID: Velicer, Wayne F.
Fava, Joseph L.
Venue: Psychological Methods
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1998-06
Volume: 3
Issue: 2
Pages: 231-251
ISSN: 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
1939-1463
DOI: 10.1037/1082-989x.3.2.231
OpenAlex: W2014533626
Cited by: 998
References: 97
Citations by year: 2026: 34 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 62 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 48
FWCI: 11.03
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
Keywords: variable sampling, sample size, factor analysis

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