The DOI matches its Crossref record; 78 of the 79 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Emotion and motivation I: Defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing.
Abstract
Emotional reactions are organized by underlying motivational states--defensive and appetitive--that have evolved to promote the survival of individuals and species. Affective responses were measured while participants viewed pictures with varied emotional and neutral content. Consistent with the motivational hypothesis, reports of the strongest emotional arousal, largest skin conductance responses, most pronounced cardiac deceleration, and greatest modulation of the startle reflex occurred when participants viewed pictures depicting threat, violent death, and erotica. Moreover, reflex modulation and conductance change varied with arousal, whereas facial patterns were content specific. The findings suggest that affective responses serve different functions-mobilization for action, attention, and social communication-and reflect the motivational system that is engaged, its intensity of activation, and the specific emotional context.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Others have extended this model to emotional memory for images, facial expressions, language, and experiences (Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert, & Lang, 2001;Osgood, 1966;Robinson, 1980;Russell, 1980).”
From Emotional Intensity Predicts Autobiographical Memory Experience (2004) · cites this paper as Bradley et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Bradley, Lang, and colleagues (Bradley et al., 2001;Bradley, Greenwald, Petry, & Lang, 1992) have examined memory for emotional words and pictures, consistently describing a”
From Emotional Intensity Predicts Autobiographical Memory Experience (2004) · cites this paper as Bradley et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Yet much of the evidence for an unpleasantness bias comes from comparisons of arousing negative stimuli with neutral stimuli (e.g., Banaji & Hardin, 1994;Bradley et al., 2001;Carter, 1936), therefore providing equal support for an intensity bias.”
From Emotional Intensity Predicts Autobiographical Memory Experience (2004) · cites this paper as Bradley et al., 2001
Citations
Cites
The expression of the emotions in man and animals.
Darwin, C. D. (1872) · J. Murray eBooks · doi:10.1037/10001-000 · Cited by 12,120
Textbook of Medical Physiology
Guyton, A. C., & Hall, J. E. (1966) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-64-6-1363_2 · Cited by 9,760
Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential
Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0005-7916(94)90063-9 · Cited by 9,538
Self-citationOsgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957) · Cited by 9,433
(1974) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,295
The Organization of Behavior; A Neuropsychological Theory.
Attneave, F., B., M., & Hebb, D. O. (1950) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1418888 · Cited by 5,146
(2001) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511546396 · Cited by 4,482
Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion.
Smith, C. A., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1985) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.4.813 · Cited by 4,273
The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory
(1950) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1950.02910470083028 · Cited by 4,272
Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change
Garfield, S. L., Bergin, A. E., & Dryden, W. (1987) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.1.4.264a · Cited by 3,998
Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions
LANG, P. J., GREENWALD, M. K., BRADLEY, M. M., & HAMM, A. O. (1993) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1993.tb03352.x · Cited by 3,190
Self-citationThe emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention.
Lang, P. J. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.50.5.372 · Cited by 2,876
Self-citationPerception and the conditioned reflex
Granger, G. W. (1964) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(64)90061-0 · Cited by 2,209
Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.3.377 · Cited by 2,205
Self-citationPerception and the Conditioned Reflex
Hay, J. C., & Sokolov, Y. N. (1966) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420734 · Cited by 2,123
Integrative activity of the brain
Konorski, J. (1967) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · Cited by 2,043
Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.401 · Cited by 1,870
Guidelines for Human Electromyographic Research
Fridlund, A. J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1986.tb00676.x · Cited by 1,737
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1999) · Cited by 1,664
Self-citationMotivated attention : affect, activation, and action
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1997) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,486
Self-citationThe Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology: II.
Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., & Friesen, W. V. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.342 · Cited by 1,371
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
Darwin, C. D. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139833813 · Cited by 1,351
Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience.
Davidson, R. J., Jackson, D. C., & Kalin, N. H. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.890 · Cited by 1,322 · cited 1×
“The data are consistent with a motivational view of emotional organization, which holds that affective reports and behavior are determined in significant part by the activation of appetitive and defensive motive systems (Lang et al., 1997; see also Cacioppo et al., 1999; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”
BackgroundCognitive Neuroscience of Emotion
(1999) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195118889.001.0001 · Cited by 1,289
The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components: Form follows function.
Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.839 · Cited by 1,217
Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511546396.025 · Cited by 1,071
Self-citationVasey, M. W., & Thayer, J. F. (1987) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1987.tb00324.x · Cited by 1,063
Cardiovascular Psychophysiology
Obrist, P. A. (1981) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8491-5 · Cited by 1,051
Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear
Fanselow, M. S. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210947 · Cited by 1,000
Technology in mental health care delivery systems
Sidowski, J. B., Johnson, J. H., & Williams, T. A. (1980) · Ablex Pub. Corp. eBooks · Cited by 977
Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change
Kepecs, J. G. (1980) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1980.34.1.131 · Cited by 965
Emotion and motivation II: Sex differences in picture processing.
Bradley, M. M., Codispoti, M., Sabatinelli, D., & Lang, P. J. (2001) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.300 · Cited by 943
Self-citationCardiovascular Psychophysiology: A Perspective
(1982) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1982.tb02569.x · Cited by 878
Lang, P. J., Simons, R. F., Balaban, M. T., & Simons, R. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203726457 · Cited by 794
Self-citationMeasuring Emotion: Behavior, Feeling, and Physiology
Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1999) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195118889.003.0011 · Cited by 781
Self-citationEkman, P. (1973) · Cited by 700
The startle probe response: A new measure of emotion?
Vrana, S. R., Spence, E. L., & Lang, P. J. (1988) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.97.4.487 · Cited by 603
Self-citationFleeting images: A new look at early emotion discrimination
Junghöfer, M., Bradley, M. M., Elbert, T. R., & Lang, P. J. (2001) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/1469-8986.3820175 · Cited by 603
Self-citationAmygdala central nucleus lesions: Effect on heart rate conditioning in the rabbit
Kapp, B. S., Frysinger, R. C., Gallagher, M., & Haselton, J. R. (1979) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(79)90304-4 · Cited by 590
Integrative Activity of the Brain: An Interdisciplinary Approach
Ochs, S. (1968) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1968.03140050055025 · Cited by 524
Learning and Computational Neuroscience: Foundations of Adaptive Networks
Gabriel, M., & Moore, J. (1990) · Cited by 518
(1989) · Journal of Psychophysiology · Cited by 489
Self-citationThe startle probe response: A new measure of emotion?
Vrana, S. R., Spence, E. L., & Lang, P. J. (1988) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.97.4.487 · Cited by 467
Self-citationEmotion, novelty, and the startle reflex: Habituation in humans.
Bradley, M. M., Lang, P. J., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1993) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.107.6.970 · Cited by 406
Self-citationProbing picture perception: Activation and emotion
Cuthbert, B. N., Bradleym, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1996) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1996.tb02114.x · Cited by 403
Self-citationPrécis of The brain and emotion
Rolls, E. T. (2000) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00002429 · Cited by 397
The role of the amygdala in conditioned and unconditioned fear and anxiety
Davis, M. (2000) · The Amygdala · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198505013.003.0006 · Cited by 384
Cross-cultural studies of facial expression
Ekman, P. (1973) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 372
Individual Differences in Autonomic Response: Conditioned Association or Conditioned Fear?
Hodes, R. L., Cook, E. W., & Lang, P. J. (1985) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1985.tb01649.x · Cited by 368
Self-citationDistinguishing among Orienting, Defense, and Startle Reflexes
Graham, F. K. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003171409-10 · Cited by 354
Startle Modification: Implications for Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, and Clinical Science
Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Böhmelt, A. H. (2008) · Cited by 344
Textbook of Medical Physiology
Morris, R. (1962) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.1093/ptj/42.1.61 · Cited by 324
Lang, P. J. (1971) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 320
Self-citationEmotion, novelty, and the startle reflex: Habituation in humans.
Bradley, M. M., Lang, P. J., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1993) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.107.6.970 · Cited by 317
Self-citationFACIAL EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAGIOUS
Lundqvist, L., & Dimberg, U. (1995) · Journal of Psychophysiology · Cited by 311
Hamm, A. O., Cuthbert, B. N., Globisch, J., & Vaitl, D. (1997) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02420.x · Cited by 308
Self-citationAttack and defense in rodents as ethoexperimental models for the study of emotion
Blanchard, R. J., & Blanchard, D. C. (1989) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0278-5846(89)90105-x · Cited by 296
Pictures as prepulse: Attention and emotion in startle modification
Bradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (1993) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1993.tb02079.x · Cited by 255
Self-citationBradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665523.010 · Cited by 248
Self-citationBEHAVIOR SYSTEMS AND REINFORCEMENT: AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
Timberlake, W. D. (1993) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1993.60-105 · Cited by 213
Facial Muscle Patterning and Subjective Experience During Affective Imagery: Sex Differences
SCHWARTZ, G. E. R., Brown, S., & Ahern, G. L. (1980) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1980.tb02463.x · Cited by 206
Unobservable Facial Actions and Emotion
Tassinary, L. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1992) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00252.x · Cited by 205
Probe P3 and blinks: Two measures of affective startle modulation
SCHUPP, H. T., CUTHBERT, B. N., BRADLEY, M. M., BIRBAUMER, N., & LANG, P. J. (1997) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02409.x · Cited by 181
Self-citationThe defense motivation system: A theory of avoidance behavior
Masterson, F. A., & Crawford, M. (1982) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00014114 · Cited by 155
Young, F. W. (1968) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830130412 · Cited by 150
Probing affective pictures: Attended startle and tone probes
Cuthbert, B. N., Schupp, H. T., Bradley, M. M., McManis, M. H., & Lang, P. J. (1998) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1017/s0048577298970536 · Cited by 147
Self-citationTassinary, L. G., Cacioppo, J. T., & Geen, T. R. (1989) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1989.tb03125.x · Cited by 138
Information flow from sensation to emotion: Plasticity in the neural computation of stimulus value.
LeDoux, J. E. (1990) · Cited by 130
Individual Differences in Fear and Autonomic Reactions to Affective Stimulation
Klorman, R., Weissberg, R. P., & Wiesenfeld, A. R. (1977) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1977.tb01154.x · Cited by 118
AUTONOMIC RESPONSES TO AFFECTIVE VISUAL STIMULATION
Hare, R. D., Wood, K., Britain, S., & Shadman, J. (1970) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1970.tb01766.x · Cited by 114
Psychobiology of Coping and Defence Strategies
Ursin, H., & Olff, M. (2008) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000119002 · Cited by 103
Origins of Orienting and Defensive Responses: An Evolutionary Perspective
Lang, P. J., Simons, R. F., Balaban, M. T., & Simons, R. L. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9780203726457-12 · Cited by 92
Self-citationStimulus significance and bilateral SCRs to potentially phobic pictures.
Maltzman, I. M., & Boyd, G. M. (1984) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.93.1.41 · Cited by 34
Kimmel, H. D., Olst, E. H., & Orlebeke, J. F. (1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 30
Stimulus significance and bilateral SCRs to potentially phobic pictures.
Maltzman, I. M., & Boyd, G. M. (1984) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.93.1.41 · Cited by 27
Psychophysiological Responses of Sport Fans
Hillman, C. H., Cuthbert, B. N., Cauraugh, J. H., Schupp, H. T., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2000) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1005535508771 · Cited by 25
Self-citationA few ideas from Stan M. Davis
Davis, S. M. (2001) · Ubiquity · doi:10.1145/378112.380745 · Cited by 7
Bradley, J. F. (2001) · AAP Pediatric Coding Newsletter · doi:10.1542/pcco_book003_document002 · Cited by 2
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Codispoti, 1998, Stimulus complexity and affective content: Startle reactivity over time., Psychophysiology, 35, S25
- Cook, 1987, Stimulus control and data acquisition for IBM PCs and compatibles., Psychophysiology, 24, 726
- Cook, 1997, VPM reference manual.
- Globisch, 1993, A computer program for scoring reflex eyeblink and electrodermal responses written in Pascal., Psychophysiology, 39, S30
- 10.1017/S0048577201000762 · DOI
- Lang, 1980, Behavioral treatment and bio-behavioral assessment: Computer applications., 119
- 10.1037/0003-066X.50.5.372 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: a review
Kreibig, S. D. (2010) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010 · Cited by 3,188
The brain basis of emotion: a meta-analytic review
Lindquist, K. A., Wager, T. D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E., & Barrett, L. F. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11000446 · Cited by 2,320
“…activity is observed in instances that do not involve the experience of fear, such as when stimuli are experienced as subjectively arousing (e.g., Bradley et al. 2001; Weierich et al. 2010), intense (e.g., Bach et al. 2008), emotionally “impactful” (e.g., Ewbank et al. 2009), or valuable…”
The pupil as a measure of emotional arousal and autonomic activation
Bradley, M. M., Miccoli, L., Escrig, M. A., & Lang, P. J. (2008) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00654.x · Cited by 1,919
Self-citationSheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611418350 · Cited by 1,435
Event-Related Potentials, Emotion, and Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review
Hajcak, G., MacNamara, A., & Olvet, D. M. (2010) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640903526504 · Cited by 1,370
Metadata
- Authors
- Bradley, M. M., Codispoti, M., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Florida (US)
- Venue
- Emotion
- Published
- 2001
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 276-298
- ISSN
- 1528-3542 (ISSN-L)
- 1931-1516
- OpenAlex
- W1977500242
- Cited by
- 2,224
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 77 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 93 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 126 · 2021: 124 · 2020: 104 · 2019: 115 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 119 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 129 · 2014: 137 · 2013: 125 · 2012: 107
- FWCI
- 7.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Emotion (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043975-12)
- National Institute of Mental Health (P50MH052384, MH 43975, MH27757, P50 MH 52384)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- motivation, defensive reactions, emotional arousal, skin conductance, cardiac deceleration, startle response, threats, violent death, erotic literature, facial expressions, image processing, emotional responses
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Defense Mechanisms, Emotions, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Surveys and Questionnaires, Visual Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
