The overlap model: A model of letter position coding.
Open accessAbstract
Recent research has shown that letter identity and letter position are not integral perceptual dimensions (e.g., jugde primes judge in word-recognition experiments). Most comprehensive computational models of visual word recognition (e.g., the interactive activation model, J. L. McClelland & D. E. Rumelhart, 1981, and its successors) assume that the position of each letter within a word is perfectly encoded. Thus, these models are unable to explain the presence of effects of letter transposition (trial-trail), letter migration (beard-bread), repeated letters (moose-mouse), or subset/superset effects (faulty-faculty). The authors extend R. Ratcliff's (1981) theory of order relations for encoding of letter positions and show that the model can successfully deal with these effects. The basic assumption is that letters in the visual stimulus have distributions over positions so that the representation of one letter will extend into adjacent letter positions. To test the model, the authors conducted a series of forced-choice perceptual identification experiments. The overlap model produced very good fits to the empirical data, and even a simplified 2-parameter model was capable of producing fits for 104 observed data points with a correlation coefficient of .91.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Open-bigram coding is only one possible implementation; replacing it with another scheme would not harm the approach if the new mechanism is flexible and maximizes diagnostic information under visibility constraints.
“Replacing this mechanism with an alternative coding scheme (e.g., Gomez et al., 2008) would not be detrimental to our approach, as long as the new mechanism exhibits the key properties of flexibility, and maximizing the use of diagnostic information given constraints in letter visibility.”
From A Dual-Route Approach to Orthographic Processing (2011) · cites this paper as Gomez et al., 2008
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
(1967) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,532 · see citing works
McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.5.375 · Cited by 4,889 · see citing works
Ratcliff, R. (1978) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.85.2.59 · Cited by 4,513 · see citing works
Self-citationA distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming.
Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.523 · Cited by 3,909 · see citing works
DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud.
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.1.204 · Cited by 3,178 · see citing works
The Diffusion Decision Model: Theory and Data for Two-Choice Decision Tasks
Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G. (2008) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco.2008.12-06-420 · Cited by 3,059 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains.
Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L., Seidenberg, M. S., & Patterson, K. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.56 · Cited by 2,698 · see citing works
Bergum, B. O., & Dornič, S. (1978) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421701 · Cited by 1,778 · see citing works
Chambers, J. M., Hastie, T., & Pregibon, D. (1990) · Physica-Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-50096-1_48 · Cited by 1,763 · see citing works
Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1982) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.89.1.60 · Cited by 1,530 · see citing works
Repetition priming and frequency attenuation in lexical access.
Forster, K. I., & Davis, C. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.10.4.680 · Cited by 1,414 · see citing works
Illusory conjunctions in the perception of objects
Treisman, A., & Schmidt, H. J. (1982) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(82)90006-8 · Cited by 1,361 · see citing works
Toward a model of eye movement control in reading.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L., & Rayner, K. (1998) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.105.1.125 · Cited by 1,267 · see citing works
Attention and Performance XII: The Psychology of Reading
Coltheart, M. (1987) · Cited by 1,195 · see citing works
The neural code for written words: a proposal
Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Sigman, M., & Vinckier, F. (2005) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.05.004 · Cited by 1,137 · see citing works
Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model.
Grainger, J., & Jacobs, A. M. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.518 · Cited by 947 · see citing works
Localist Connectionist Approaches To Human Cognition
(2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203774533 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Connectionist and diffusion models of reaction time.
Ratcliff, R., Zandt, T. V., & McKoon, G. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.2.261 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
Self-citationA Diffusion Model Account of the Lexical Decision Task.
Ratcliff, R., Gómez, P., & McKoon, G. (2004) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.111.1.159 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Self-citationPerry, C., Ziegler, J. C., & Zorzi, M. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.2.273 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Masked priming with graphemically related forms: Repetition or partial activation?
Forster, K. I., Davis, C., Schoknecht, C., & Carter, R. (1987) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748708401785 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Whitney, C. (2001) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196158 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Gómez, P., Ratcliff, R., & Perea, M. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.3.389 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Bayesian reader: Explaining word recognition as an optimal Bayesian decision process.
Norris, D. G. (2006) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.113.2.327 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Can CANISO activate CASINO? Transposed-letter similarity effects with nonadjacent letter positions
Perea, M., & Lupker, S. J. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.05.005 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Self-citationMasking of foveal and parafoveal vision during eye fixations in reading.
Rayner, K., & al, E. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.7.1.167 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
A theory of perceptual matching.
Krueger, L. E. (1978) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.85.4.278 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Cracking the orthographic code: An introduction
Grainger, J. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960701578013 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Modeling letter position coding in printed word perception
Jonathan Grainger, B., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2004) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · Cited by 308 · see citing works
The CODE theory of visual attention: An integration of space-based and object-based attention.
Logan, G. D. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.4.603 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Theoretical interpretations of the speed and accuracy of positive and negative responses.
Ratcliff, R. (1985) · Psychology Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.2.212 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Self-citationLetter position coding in printed word perception: Effects of repeated and transposed letters
Schoonbaert, S., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2004) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960344000198 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
An Exemplar-Based Random Walk Model of Speeded Classification
Nosofsky, R., & Palmeri, T. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.266 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
van Gompel, R. P. G., Fischer, M. H., Murray, W. S., & Hill, R. L. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-044980-7.x5000-9 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
A theory of order relations in perceptual matching.
Ratcliff, R. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.6.552 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Self-citationDoes jugde activate COURT? Transposed-letter similarity effects in masked associative priming
Perea, M., & Lupker, S. J. (2003) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196438 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Self-citationA diffusion model account of masking in two-choice letter identification.
Ratcliff, R., & Rouder, J. N. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.26.1.127 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Self-citationRaeding Wrods With Jubmled Lettres
Rayner, K., White, S. J., Johnson, R. L., & Liversedge, S. P. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01684.x · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Eye Movement Control during Reading: Evidence for Direct Control
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1981) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748108400798 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Transposed-letter effects in reading: Evidence from eye movements and parafoveal preview.
Johnson, R. L., Perea, M., & Rayner, K. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.33.1.209 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of syllable frequency and syllable neighborhood frequency in visual word recognition.
Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.24.1.134 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Self-citationLexical Retrieval and Selection Processes: Effects of Transposed-Letter Confusability
Andrews, S. (1996) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1996.0040 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Order and position in primary memory for letter strings
Lee, C. L., & Estes, W. K. (1977) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(77)80036-4 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
A diffusion model analysis of the effects of aging on letter discrimination.
Thapar, A., Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G. (2003) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.3.415 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Self-citationLetter position information and printed word perception: The relative-position priming constraint.
Grainger, J., Granier, J.-P., Farioli, F., Assche, E. V., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.32.4.865 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Transposed-Letter Confusability Effects in Masked Form Priming
Kinoshita, S., & Lupker, S. J. (2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203502846-13 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Eye movements when reading transposed text: The importance of word-beginning letters.
White, S. J., Johnson, R. L., Liversedge, S. P., & Rayner, K. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.1261 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., White, S. J., & Vergilino‐Perez, D. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.24483 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Letter and order information in lexical access
Chambers, S. M. (1979) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(79)90136-1 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
The locus of inferential and perceptual processes in letter identification.
Estes, W. K. (1975) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.104.2.122 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Serial position functions for letter identification at brief and extended exposure durations
Estes, W. K., Allmeyer, D. H., & Reder, S. (1976) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03199379 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Mental lexicon : "some words to talk about words"
Bonin, P. (2004) · Cited by 170 · see citing works
A Note on the Informativeness of Parts of Words
Bruner, J. S., & O’Dowd, D. D. (1958) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/002383095800100203 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
A counter model for implicit priming in perceptual word identification.
Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.319 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationA formal theory of feature binding in object perception.
Ashby, F. G., Prinzmetal, W., Ivry, R. I., & Maddox, W. T. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.165 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Criterion bias and search sequence bias in word recognition
O’Connor, R. E., & Forster, K. I. (1981) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196953 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Configurational effects on the enumeration of dots: Counting by groups
van Oeffelen, M. P., & Vos, P. G. (1982) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202432 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Masked priming effects with syllabic neighbors in a lexical decision task.
Carreiras, M., & Perea, M. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.28.5.1228 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citationDavis, C. J., & Bowers, J. S. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.32.3.535 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Automatic semantic activation of embedded words: Is there a “hat” in “that”?
Bowers, J. S., Davis, C. J., & Hanley, D. A. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.09.003 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Letter Transpositions Within and Across Morphemes.
Christianson, K., Johnson, R. L., & Rayner, K. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.6.1327 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Acha, J., & Perea, M. (2007) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712607x224478 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationLetter migration in word perception.
Mozer, M. C. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.9.4.531 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Friedmann, N., & Gvion, A. (2001) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643290143000051 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Masked priming: State of the Art
Bowers, J. S. (2003) · Cited by 115 · see citing works
The frequency effect for pseudowords in the lexical decision task
Perea, M., Rosa, E., & Gómez, C. (2005) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03206493 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationWord-Specific Knowledge, Word-Recognition Strategies, and Spelling Ability
Holmes, V. M., & Ng, E. (1993) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1993.1013 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Do Transposed-Letter Similarity Effects Occur at a Prelexical Phonological Level?
Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2005) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210500298880 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationEvaluating a computational model of perceptual grouping by proximity
Compton, B. J., & Logan, G. D. (1993) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03206783 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Neighborhood-frequency effects when primes and targets are of different lengths
Moor, W. D., & Brysbaert, M. (2000) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/pl00008174 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
A bias interpretation of facilitation in perceptual identification.
Ratcliff, R., McKoon, G., & Verwoerd, M. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.15.3.378 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationMasked form priming with extreme transposition
Guerrera, C., & Forster, K. I. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960701579722 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Jordan, T. R. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.16.4.893 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
What Do Letter Migration Errors Reveal About Letter Position Coding in Visual Word Recognition?
Davis, C. J., & Bowers, J. S. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.30.5.923 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Speed and accuracy of same and different responses in perceptual matching
Ratcliff, R., & Hacker, M. J. (1981) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03214286 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationDo transposed-letter effects occur across lexeme boundaries?
Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2006) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193863 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationTransposed-Letter Priming Effects for Close Versus Distant Transpositions
Perea, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2008) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.55.6.384 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effect of neighborhood frequency in reading: Evidence with transposed-letter neighbors
Acha, J., & Perea, M. (2008) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.02.006 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationAn algorithm for pattern description on the level of relative proximity
van Oeffelen, M. P., & Vos, P. G. (1983) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/0031-3203(83)90040-7 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
A study of relative-position priming with superset primes.
Assche, E. V., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.2.399 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Transposed-letter similarity effects in naming pseudowords: Evidence from children and adults
Perea, M., & Estévez, A. (2007) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440701306941 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationChapter 9 A new model of letter string encoding: simulating right neglect dyslexia
Whitney, C., & Berndt, R. S. (1999) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(08)63072-1 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Letter Form as a Constraint for Errors in Neglect Dyslexia and Letter Position Dyslexia
Friedmann, N., & Gvion, A. (2005) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2005/635634 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The flexibility of letter coding
Johnson, R. L. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008044980-7/50021-5 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Comparison of the SERIOL and SOLAR theories of letter-position encoding
Whitney, C. (2007) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.08.002 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Facilitative orthographic neighborhood effects: The SERIOL model account
Whitney, C., & Michal Lavidor, B. (2005) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2005.07.001 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Perea, M., Acha, J., & Fraga, I. (2007) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2007.08.005 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationWord recognition development in children: Insights from masked priming
Castles, A. E., Davis, C., & Forster, K. I. (2003) · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Task-specific serial position effects in comparisons of multiletter strings
Proctor, R. W., & Healy, A. F. (1987) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03210507 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Order-relevant and order-irrelevant decision rules in multiletter matching.
Proctor, R. W., & Healy, A. F. (1985) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.11.3.519 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A probabilistic multidimensional model of location information
Maddox, W. T., Prinzmetal, W., Ivry, R. B., & Ashby, F. G. (1994) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/bf00419713 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 92 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Davis CJ The self-organizing lexical acquisition and recognition (SOLAR) model of visual word recognition Dissertation Abstracts International 1999 62 01 594B
- Davis CJ When knowing what is not the same as knowing where Australian Journal of Psychology 2002 54 54
- Ratcliff R Order information and distributed memory models Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society 1987 474 486 Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The spatial coding model of visual word identification.
Davis, C. J. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0019738 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Towards a universal model of reading
Frost, R. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11001841 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
A Dual-Route Approach to Orthographic Processing
Grainger, J., & Ziegler, J. C. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00054 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Bayesian just-so stories in psychology and neuroscience.
Bowers, J. S., & Davis, C. J. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0026450 · Cited by 436 · see citing works
Cracking the orthographic code: An introduction
Grainger, J. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960701578013 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Diffusion models of the flanker task: Discrete versus gradual attentional selection
White, C. N., Ratcliff, R., & Starns, J. J. (2011) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.08.001 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Self-citationOB1-reader: A model of word recognition and eye movements in text reading.
Snell, J., van Leipsig, S., Jonathan Grainger, B., & Meeter, M. (2018) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000119 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Modeling confidence and response time in recognition memory.
Ratcliff, R., & Starns, J. J. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0014086 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Self-citationGrainger, J., Dufau, S., & Ziegler, J. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.12.008 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Duñabeitia, J. A., Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2007) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.12.001 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Self-citationEye movements when reading transposed text: The importance of word-beginning letters.
White, S. J., Johnson, R. L., Liversedge, S. P., & Rayner, K. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.1261 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Orthographic processing: A ‘mid-level’ vision of reading: The 44th Sir Frederic Bartlett Lecture
Jonathan Grainger, B. (2017) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2017.1314515 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Evidence for multiple routes in learning to read
Jonathan Grainger, B., Lété, B., Bertand, D., Dufau, S., & Ziegler, J. C. (2012) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.01.003 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Readers Are Parallel Processors
Snell, J., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.04.006 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Ratcliff, R., & Starns, J. J. (2013) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0033152 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationVelan, H., & Frost, R. (2010) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.11.013 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Reading through a noisy channel: Why there's nothing special about the perception of orthography.
Norris, D. G., & Kinoshita, S. (2012) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0028450 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Smolensky, P., Goldrick, M., & Mathis, D. W. (2013) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12047 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Perea, M., Panadero, V., Moret‐Tatay, C., & Gómez, P. (2012) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.04.001 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Self-citationModels of visual word recognition
Norris, D. G. (2013) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.08.003 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Acha, J., & Perea, M. (2007) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712607x224478 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationA stimulus sampling theory of letter identity and order
Norris, D. G., Kinoshita, S., & van Casteren, M. (2010) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.11.002 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Ziegler, J. C., Bertrand, D., Lété, B., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035187 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Transposed-letter priming of prelexical orthographic representations.
Kinoshita, S., & Norris, D. G. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0014277 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
You That Read Wrong Again! A Transposed-Word Effect in Grammaticality Judgments
Mirault, J., Snell, J., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2018) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797618806296 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Carreiras, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Molinaro, N. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp019 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Davis, C. J., Perea, M., & Acha, J. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0014253 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationCarreiras, M., Dowens, M. G., Vergara‐Martínez, M., & Perea, M. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.21023 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationVisual complexity in orthographic learning: Modeling learning across writing system variations
Chang, L., Plaut, D. C., & Perfetti, C. A. (2015) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2015.1104688 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Carreiras, M., Vergara‐Martínez, M., & Perea, M. (2007) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.04.053 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning optimal decisions with confidence
Drugowitsch, J., Mendonça, A. G., Mainen, Z. F., & Pouget, A. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1906787116 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Letter-transposition effects are not universal: The impact of transposing letters in Hebrew
Velan, H., & Frost, R. (2009) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.05.003 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Lee, C. H., & Taft, M. (2009) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.01.002 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Responding to nonwords in the lexical decision task: Insights from the English Lexicon Project.
Yap, M. J.-M., Sibley, D. E., Balota, D. A., Ratcliff, R., & Rueckl, J. G. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000064 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationDubois, M., Kyllingsbaek, S., Prado, C., Musca, S. C., Peiffer, E., Lassus-Sangosse, D., & Valdois, S. (2010) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.11.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Letters in time and retinotopic space.
Adelman, J. S. (2011) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0024811 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Serial order in perception, memory, and action.
Logan, G. D. (2020) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000253 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Rouder, J. N., Province, J. M., Morey, R. D., Gómez, P., & Heathcote, A. (2014) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-013-9396-3 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Slattery, T. J., & Rayner, K. (2013) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-013-0463-8 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
The search for an input-coding scheme: Transposed-letter priming in Arabic
Perea, M., Mallouh, R. A., & Carreiras, M. (2010) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.17.3.375 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationParallel Processing of Whole Words and Morphemes in Visual Word Recognition
Beyersmann, E., Coltheart, M., & Castles, A. E. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.672437 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Lupker, S. J., & Davis, C. J. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0015278 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
When ‘slime’ becomes ‘smile’: Developmental letter position dyslexia in English
Kohnen, S., Nickels, L., Castles, A. E., Friedmann, N., & McArthur, G. M. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.07.016 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The importance of the first and last letter in words during sentence reading
Johnson, R. L., & Eisler, M. E. (2012) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.09.013 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Do serifs provide an advantage in the recognition of written words?
Moret‐Tatay, C., & Perea, M. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.546781 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationDo orthotactics and phonology constrain the transposed-letter effect?
Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960701578146 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationTransposed-Letter Priming Effects for Close Versus Distant Transpositions
Perea, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2008) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.55.6.384 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationThe time course of orthography and phonology: ERP correlates of masked priming effects in Spanish
Carreiras, M., Perea, M., Vergara‐Martínez, M., & Pollatsek, A. (2009) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00844.x · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationJonathan Grainger, B., Mathôt, S., & Vitu, F. (2013) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.11.014 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
ERP correlates of transposed‐letter priming effects: The role of vowels versus consonants
Carreiras, M., Vergara‐Martínez, M., & Perea, M. (2008) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00725.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationCross-lingual neighborhood effects in generalized lexical decision and natural reading.
Dirix, N., Cop, U., Drieghe, D., & Duyck, W. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000352 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Scaltritti, M., & Balota, D. A. (2013) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.07.018 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Reconsidering the role of orthographic redundancy in visual word recognition
Chetail, F. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00645 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Differential Sensitivity of Letters, Numbers, and Symbols to Character Transpositions
Duñabeitia, J. A., Dimitropoulou, M., Jonathan Grainger, B., Hernandez-Cabrera, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00180 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Beyond alphabetic orthographies: The role of form and phonology in transposition effects in Katakana
Perea, M., & Pérez, E. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960802053924 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationOrthographic Coding: Brain Activation for Letters, Symbols, and Digits
Carreiras, M., Quiñones, I., Hernandez-Cabrera, J. A., & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu163 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Duñabeitia, J. A., Kinoshita, S., Carreiras, M., & Norris, D. G. (2010) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690965.2010.499215 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Is the visual analyzer orthographic-specific? Reading words and numbers in letter position dyslexia
Friedmann, N., Dotan, D., & Rahamim, E. (2009) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.007 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Decision making on spatially continuous scales.
Ratcliff, R. (2018) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000117 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationThe relative position priming effect depends on whether letters are vowels or consonants.
Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0023577 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Character order processing in Chinese reading.
Gu, J., Li, X., & Liversedge, S. P. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0038639 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Perea, M., & Acha, J. (2008) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.11.001 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationSanocki, T., & Dyson, M. C. (2011) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-011-0220-9 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Winskel, H., Perea, M., & Ratitamkul, T. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.658409 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationBoth-edges representation of letter position in reading
Fischer‐Baum, S., Charny, J., & McCloskey, M. E. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0160-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The effects of interletter spacing in visual-word recognition
Perea, M., Moret‐Tatay, C., & Gómez, P. (2011) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.04.003 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationJohnson, R. L. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0015572 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Stites, M. C., Federmeier, K. D., & Christianson, K. (2016) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2016.1212082 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
ERP correlates of letter identity and letter position are modulated by lexical frequency
Vergara‐Martínez, M., Perea, M., Gómez, P., & Swaab, T. Y. (2013) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.12.009 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationTransposed-letter similarity effects in naming pseudowords: Evidence from children and adults
Perea, M., & Estévez, A. (2007) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440701306941 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the interaction of letter transpositions and morphemic boundaries
Rueckl, J. G., & Rimzhim, A. (2010) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690965.2010.500020 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Representation of letter position in spelling: Evidence from acquired dysgraphia
Fischer-Baum, S., McCloskey, M., & Rapp, B. (2010) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.03.013 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Linking memory and language: Evidence for a serial-order learning impairment in dyslexia
Bogaerts, L., Szmalec, A., Hachmann, W. M., Page, M. P. A., & Duyck, W. (2015) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2015.06.012 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Increasing interletter spacing facilitates encoding of words
Perea, M., & Gómez, P. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0214-6 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationN250 effects for letter transpositions depend on lexicality: ‘casual’ or ‘causal’?
Duñabeitia, J. A., Molinaro, N., Laka, I., Estévez, A., & Carreiras, M. (2009) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0b013e3283249b1c · Cited by 52 · see citing works
A compositional neural code in high-level visual cortex can explain jumbled word reading
Agrawal, A., Hari, K., & Arun, S. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.54846 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Meletis, D., & Dürscheid, C. (2022) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110757835 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Lété, B., & Fayol, M. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.09.001 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Word position coding in reading is noisy
Snell, J., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01574-0 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Supporting the serial in the SERIOL model
Whitney, C. (2008) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960701828202 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
A Computational and Empirical Investigation of Graphemes in Reading
Perry, C., Ziegler, J. C., & Zorzi, M. (2013) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12030 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Subtle Increases in Interletter Spacing Facilitate the Encoding of Words during Normal Reading
Perea, M., & Gómez, P. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047568 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationThe connectionist dual process (CDP) approach to modelling reading aloud
Zorzi, M. (2010) · European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440903435621 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
The effects of character transposition within and across words in Chinese reading
Gu, J., & Li, X. (2014) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-014-0749-5 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Masked suffix priming and morpheme positional constraints
Crepaldi, D., Hemsworth, L., Davis, C. J., & Rastle, K. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1027713 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The influence of word frequency on the transposed-phoneme priming effect
Dufour, S., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2020) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-020-02060-9 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Evidence for Letter-Specific Position Coding Mechanisms
Massol, S., Duñabeitia, J. A., Carreiras, M., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068460 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
There is no clam with coats in the calm coast : Delimiting the transposed-letter priming effect
Duñabeitia, J. A., Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2009) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210802696070 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationPrimativo, S., Donatella Spinelli, A., Zoccolotti, P., Luca, M. D., & Martelli, M. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153786 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Häikiö, T., Hyönä, J., & Bertram, R. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2014.982126 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Are Transposition Effects Specific to Letters?
García-Orza, J., Perea, M., & Muñoz, S. (2010) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210903474278 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationPrecision of position signals for letters
Chung, S. T. L., & Legge, G. E. (2009) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2009.05.004 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Task-Dependent Masked Priming Effects in Visual Word Recognition
Kinoshita, S., & Norris, D. G. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00178 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
A developmental investigation of the first-letter advantage
Jonathan Grainger, B., Bertrand, D., Lété, B., Beyersmann, E., & Ziegler, J. C. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.07.016 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Toward a scalable holographic word-form representation
Cox, G. E., Kachergis, G., Recchia, G. L., & Jones, M. N. (2011) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0125-5 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Protein Analysis Meets Visual Word Recognition: A Case for String Kernels in the Brain
Hannagan, T., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2012.01236.x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Parafoveal preprocessing of word initial trigrams during reading in adults and children.
Pagán, A., Blythe, H. I., & Liversedge, S. P. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000175 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
An ERP investigation of orthographic priming with relative-position and absolute-position primes
Jonathan Grainger, B., & Holcomb, P. J. (2009) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.080 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Transposed-Letter Effects Reveal Orthographic Processing in Baboons
Ziegler, J. C., Hannagan, T., Dufau, S., Montant, M., Fagot, J., & Jonathan Grainger, B. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612474322 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Vergara‐Martínez, M., Perea, M., Marín-Gutiérrez, A., & Carreiras, M. (2011) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2010.09.006 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Gomez, P., Ratcliff, R., & Perea, M.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2008
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 577-600
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- PMC
- PMC2597794
- OpenAlex
- W1973816319
- Semantic Scholar
- 13280e57c8e593bdddf2df1846334c05c90f836f
- Cited by
- 405
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 42.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R37-MH44640; K05-MH01891)
- Spanish Ministry of Education and Science (SEJ2005-05205/EDU)
- National Science Foundation (SES-0446869)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- overlap model, letter position coding, visual word recognition, letter transposition, order relations, perceptual identification, interactive activation model, letter identity
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Phonetics, Visual Perception, Vocabulary, Recognition, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
