The DOI matches its Crossref record; 89 of the 91 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Mapping the moral domain.
Open accessAbstract
The moral domain is broader than the empathy and justice concerns assessed by existing measures of moral competence, and it is not just a subset of the values assessed by value inventories. To fill the need for reliable and theoretically grounded measurement of the full range of moral concerns, we developed the Moral Foundations Questionnaire on the basis of a theoretical model of 5 universally available (but variably developed) sets of moral intuitions: Harm/Care, Fairness/Reciprocity, Ingroup/Loyalty, Authority/Respect, and Purity/Sanctity. We present evidence for the internal and external validity of the scale and the model, and in doing so we present new findings about morality: (a) Comparative model fitting of confirmatory factor analyses provides empirical justification for a 5-factor structure of moral concerns; (b) convergent/discriminant validity evidence suggests that moral concerns predict personality features and social group attitudes not previously considered morally relevant; and (c) we establish pragmatic validity of the measure in providing new knowledge and research opportunities concerning demographic and cultural differences in moral intuitions. These analyses provide evidence for the usefulness of Moral Foundations Theory in simultaneously increasing the scope and sharpening the resolution of psychological views of morality.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“MFQ scores have been shown to vary between cultures (Graham et al., 2011) and between social groups within a single culture (Graham et al., 2009).”
From Exploring the psychology of LLMs’ moral and legal reasoning (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“When these three distance metrics were applied to our sample of self-reported GPT liberals, we found that first, according to each of the three distance metrics, self-reported GPT liberals had a lower distance to the human liberal sample and a higher distance to the human conservative sample than did the self-reported GPT conservatives.”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
In the citing paper
“Just like for self-reported GPT conservatives, the two human samples furthest away from the self-reported GPT liberals were always the liberal sample (furthest away from with respect to cosine similarity metric) and the libertarian sample (furthest away with respect to the L1 and L2 distance metrics).”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
In the citing paper
“Also, the L1 distance metric found that self-reported GPT liberals were – among human liberals, human moderates, human conservatives, and human libertarians – closest in response to human conservatives.”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
In the citing paper
“The second, arguably more surprising finding was that according to each of the three distance metrics, our sample of self-reported GPT liberals were still closer to the human conservative sample than it was to the human liberal sample.”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
In the citing paper
“All three distance metrics found our sample of self-reported GPT conservatives to be most similar to conservative participants of Graham et al. (2011). This was always followed relatively closely by the moderate sample. The two furthest away were always the liberal sample (furthest away with respect to cosine similarity metric) and the libertarian sample (furthest away with respect to the L1 and L”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Bhagat, R. S., & Hofstede, G. (2002) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2002.7389951 · Cited by 21,688
Schwartz, S. H. (1992) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60281-6 · Cited by 14,619
The Handbook of Social Psychology
Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317 · cited 1×
“Second, we wanted to supplement the abstract relevance assessments—which, as selftheories about how one makes moral judgments, may be inaccurate with regard to actual moral judgments (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977)—with contextualized items that could more directly gauge actual moral judgments.”
BackgroundThe Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism
Trivers, R. L. (1971) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/406755 · Cited by 11,010
In A Different Voice: Psychological Theory And Women's Development
Gilligan, & Carol, C. (1982) · Cited by 10,877
(1976) · Cited by 10,423
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. (2005) · University of Massachusetts Amherst · doi:10.7275/jyj1-4868 · Cited by 10,297
Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach.
Davis, M. H. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 · Cited by 10,272
(1973) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 10,144
Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research.
Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.4.3.272 · Cited by 9,587
The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.
Haidt, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814 · Cited by 8,048
Self-citation(1999) · Cited by 7,995
Individualism and Collectivism
Hayek, F. A. (1976) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203991718-8 · Cited by 6,060
Altruistic punishment in humans
Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2002) · Nature · doi:10.1038/415137a · Cited by 5,616
Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes.
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741 · Cited by 4,872
The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies.
Fuller, C. J., Mauss, M., & Halls, W. D. (1992) · Man · doi:10.2307/2804090 · Cited by 4,831
An fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1062872 · Cited by 4,561
Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations.
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015141 · Cited by 4,560
Self-citationHandbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543
, A. (2010) · Cited by 3,771
Influence : science and practice
Cialdini, R. B. (1985) · Cited by 3,581
The self-importance of moral identity
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1423 · Cited by 3,522
The Development of Social Knowledge. Morality and Convention
Eggleston, S. J., & Turiel, E. (1985) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3121515 · Cited by 2,645
The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations.
Fiske, A. P. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.4.689 · Cited by 2,510
When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions that Liberals may not Recognize
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. (2007) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z · Cited by 2,385
Self-citationHandbook of research methods in personality psychology
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-2315 · Cited by 2,381
Douglas, M. (1966) · Cited by 2,247
Sears, D. O. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515 · Cited by 2,111
Intuitive ethics: how innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2004) · Daedalus · doi:10.1162/0011526042365555 · Cited by 2,079
Self-citationAssessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population.
Levenson, M. R., Kiehl, K. A., & Fitzpatrick, C. M. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151 · Cited by 1,775
Affect, culture, and morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog?
Haidt, J., Koller, S. H., & Dias, M. G. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.613 · Cited by 1,747
Self-citationStrangers to ourselves: discovering the adaptive unconscious
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3712 · Cited by 1,642
Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 · Cited by 1,632
Self-citationThe end of the end of ideology.
Jost, J. T. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.7.651 · Cited by 1,614
Reflections on the Revolution in France
Burke, E. K. (2018) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv19fvzzk.29 · Cited by 1,613
The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology
Huddy, L., Sears, D. O., Levy, J. S., & Jerit, J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199760107.001.0001 · Cited by 1,609
Kant, I., & Wood, A. W. (2012) · University of Washington Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511813306.013 · Cited by 1,599
Tetlock, P. E., Kristel, O. V., Elson, S. B., Green, M. C., & Lerner, J. S. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.853 · Cited by 1,400
Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think
Lakoff, G. P. (1996) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,265
Kohlberg, L. (1971) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-498640-4.50011-1 · Cited by 1,136
A Rose by Any Name? The Values Construct
Rohan, M. J. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0403_4 · Cited by 1,129
The Role of Conscious Reasoning and Intuition in Moral Judgment
Cushman, F. A., Young, L., & HAUSER, M. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01834.x · Cited by 1,061
(2006) · Cited by 1,041
A creative personality scale for the Adjective Check List.
Gough, H. G. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.8.1398 · Cited by 1,009
The Emergence of morality in young children
(1988) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.26-1805 · Cited by 950
Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation
Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0604475103 · Cited by 900
Joyce, R. (2005) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/2880.001.0001 · Cited by 773
Pushing moral buttons: The interaction between personal force and intention in moral judgment
Greene, J. D., Cushman, F. A., Stewart, L. E., Kelly Lowenberg, C., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2009) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.001 · Cited by 677
Shweder, R. A., Mahapatra, M., & Miller, J. G. (1990) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139173728.005 · Cited by 659
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2008) · The Innate Mind, Volume 3 · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195332834.003.0019 · Cited by 650
Self-citationDIT2: Devising and testing a revised instrument of moral judgment.
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D. F., Thoma, S. J., & Bebeau, M. J. (1999) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.644 · Cited by 595
Cognitive Development and Epistemology
(1971) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-04994-8 · Cited by 593
Haidt, J. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00063.x · Cited by 585
Self-citationHandbook of socialization : theory and research
Grusec, J., & Hastings, P. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-0345 · Cited by 569
Singer, P. (1993) · Cited by 488
Universalism Values and the Inclusiveness of Our Moral Universe
Schwartz, S. H. (2007) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022107308992 · Cited by 482
Sexual Morality: The Cultures and Emotions of Conservatives and Liberals1
Haidt, J., & Hersh, M. A. (2001) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02489.x · Cited by 416
Self-citationConstruction of a short version of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) scale
Zakrisson, I. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.026 · Cited by 380
(2008) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 330
Values, ideology, and the structure of political attitudes.
Feldman, S. (2003) · Cited by 315
Judging Social Issues: Difficulties, Inconsistencies, and Consistencies
Turiel, E., Hildebrandt, C., Wainryb, C., & Saltzstein, H. D. (1991) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1166056 · Cited by 313
The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to "Pragmatism".
Russell, J. E., & James, W. (1910) · The Journal of Philosophy Psychology and Scientific Methods · doi:10.2307/2011580 · Cited by 304
Brandt, A. M., & Rozin, P. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203707463 · Cited by 289
Welfare States, Solidarity and Justice Principles: Does the Type Really Matter?
Arts, J. (2001) · Acta Sociologica · doi:10.1080/00016990152696385 · Cited by 274
Sacred values and evil adversaries: A moral foundations approach.
Graham, J., & Haidt, J. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13091-001 · Cited by 273
Self-citationOlatunji, B. O., Haidt, J., McKay, D., & David, B. (2008) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.009 · Cited by 252
Self-citationThe birth of the mind: how a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human thought
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-5588 · Cited by 244
The social psychology of morality: Exploring the causes of good and evil.
(2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13091-000 · Cited by 241
Moral Cognition: Explaining the Gender Difference in Antisocial Behavior
Barriga, A. Q., Morrison, E. M., Liau, A. K., & Gibbs, J. C. (2001) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.2001.0020 · Cited by 224
The relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation.
Emler, N., Renwick, S. J. D., & Malone, B. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1073 · Cited by 193
Disgust sensitivity as a function of the Big Five and gender
Druschel, B. A., & Sherman, M. F. (1999) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00196-2 · Cited by 192
Muller, J. Z. (1997) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9780691213118 · Cited by 176
Quandaries and Virtues: Against Reductivism in Ethics
Pincoffs, E. L. (1986) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 176
The meaning of personality test scores.
Hogan, R. T., & Nicholson, R. A. (1988) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.8.621 · Cited by 173
Stich, S. G. W. (2008) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195332834.001.0001 · Cited by 160
Social Reasoning in IJO Children and Adolescents in Nigerian Communities
Hollos, M., Leis, P. E., & Turiel, E. (1986) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022002186017003007 · Cited by 154
The importance of being valid: Reliability and the process of construct validation.
John, O. P., & Soto, C. J. (2007) · Cited by 143
Moral Divisions within Countries between Orthodoxy and Progressivism: India and the United States
Jensen, L. A. (1998) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.2307/1388031 · Cited by 111
Gert, B., & Gert, J. (2002) · Cited by 108
Sullivan, E. V. (2009) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000271568 · Cited by 91
Domain Denigration and Process Preference in Academic Psychology
Rozin, P. N. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00021.x · Cited by 88
Reviving Rawls's linguistic analogy: Operative principles and the causal structure of moral actions
HAUSER, M. D., Young, L., & Cushman, F. A. (2007) · Cited by 76
Shweder, R. A. (1982) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/021204 · Cited by 59
A managerial potential scale for the California Psychological Inventory.
Gough, H. G. (1984) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.233 · Cited by 52
A socioanalytic theory of moral development
Hogan, R. T., Johnson, J. A., & Emler, N. (1978) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.23219780203 · Cited by 47
Ideology and Intuition in Moral Education
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Rimm‐Kaufman, S. E. (2008) · International Journal of Developmental Science · doi:10.3233/dev-2008-2306 · Cited by 46
Self-citationThe great justice debate : Kohlberg criticism
Puka, B. (1994) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 11
(1993)
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 91 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Haidt J Kesebir S Fiske ST Gilbert D Lindzey G Morality Handbook of Social Psychology 2010 5th Edition Hoboken, NJ Wiley 797 832
- Hofstede G Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations 2001 New York Sage Publications
- James W Pragmatism: A new name for some old ways of thinking and The Meaning of Truth 1907/1998 Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press
- Mill JS On liberty 1859/2003 New Haven, CT Yale University Press
- Singer P Practical ethics 1979 Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S. P., Motyl, M. S., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S. P., & Ditto, P. H. (2013) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4 · Cited by 1,966
Self-citationHo, A. K., Sidanius, J., Kteily, N., Sheehy-Skeffington, J. A., Pratto, F., Henkel, K. E., Foels, R., & Stewart, A. L. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000033 · Cited by 1,291
Mind Perception Is the Essence of Morality
Gray, K., Young, L., & Waytz, A. (2012) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2012.651387 · Cited by 1,008
Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies
Curry, O. S., Mullins, D., & Whitehouse, H. (2019) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/701478 · Cited by 782
Understanding Libertarian Morality: The Psychological Dispositions of Self-Identified Libertarians
Iyer, R., Koleva, S. P., Graham, J., Ditto, P. H., & Haidt, J. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042366 · Cited by 781
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 366-385
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- PMC
- PMC3116962
- OpenAlex
- W2096910467
- Cited by
- 2,666
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 169 · 2025: 254 · 2024: 245 · 2023: 242 · 2022: 269 · 2021: 245 · 2020: 212 · 2019: 215 · 2018: 174 · 2017: 157 · 2016: 137 · 2015: 114 · 2014: 92 · 2013: 77 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 37.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute of Education Sciences
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH68447)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Psychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Ethics in Business and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Values and Moral Education
- Keywords
- moral foundations, Moral Foundations Questionnaire, moral intuitions, harm/care, ingroup loyalty, moral competence, empathy, justice, personality traits, cultural differences in morality, cross-cultural comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attitude, Female, Humans, Judgment, Male, Morals, Pilot Projects, Surveys and Questionnaires, Social Values, Reproducibility of Results, Intuition
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
