Mapping the moral domain.
Open accessAbstract
The moral domain is broader than the empathy and justice concerns assessed by existing measures of moral competence, and it is not just a subset of the values assessed by value inventories. To fill the need for reliable and theoretically grounded measurement of the full range of moral concerns, we developed the Moral Foundations Questionnaire on the basis of a theoretical model of 5 universally available (but variably developed) sets of moral intuitions: Harm/Care, Fairness/Reciprocity, Ingroup/Loyalty, Authority/Respect, and Purity/Sanctity. We present evidence for the internal and external validity of the scale and the model, and in doing so we present new findings about morality: (a) Comparative model fitting of confirmatory factor analyses provides empirical justification for a 5-factor structure of moral concerns; (b) convergent/discriminant validity evidence suggests that moral concerns predict personality features and social group attitudes not previously considered morally relevant; and (c) we establish pragmatic validity of the measure in providing new knowledge and research opportunities concerning demographic and cultural differences in moral intuitions. These analyses provide evidence for the usefulness of Moral Foundations Theory in simultaneously increasing the scope and sharpening the resolution of psychological views of morality.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
MFQ scores have been shown to vary between cultures and between social groups within a single culture.
“MFQ scores have been shown to vary between cultures (Graham et al., 2011) and between social groups within a single culture (Graham et al., 2009).”
From Exploring the psychology of LLMs’ moral and legal reasoning (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al., 2011
According to each of the three distance metrics, self-reported GPT liberals had a lower distance to the human liberal sample and a higher distance to the human conservative sample than did the self-reported GPT conservatives.
“When these three distance metrics were applied to our sample of self-reported GPT liberals, we found that first, according to each of the three distance metrics, self-reported GPT liberals had a lower distance to the human liberal sample and a higher distance to the human conservative sample than did the self-reported GPT conservatives.”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
For self-reported GPT liberals, the two human samples furthest away were always the liberal sample and the libertarian sample.
“Just like for self-reported GPT conservatives, the two human samples furthest away from the self-reported GPT liberals were always the liberal sample (furthest away from with respect to cosine similarity metric) and the libertarian sample (furthest away with respect to the L1 and L2 distance metrics).”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
The L1 distance metric found self-reported GPT liberals closest in response to human conservatives among human liberals, moderates, conservatives, and libertarians; the L2 and cosine similarity metrics found them closest to human moderates, with human conservatives a close second.
“Also, the L1 distance metric found that self-reported GPT liberals were – among human liberals, human moderates, human conservatives, and human libertarians – closest in response to human conservatives.”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
According to each of the three distance metrics, self-reported GPT liberals were still closer to the human conservative sample than to the human liberal sample.
“The second, arguably more surprising finding was that according to each of the three distance metrics, our sample of self-reported GPT liberals were still closer to the human conservative sample than it was to the human liberal sample.”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
All three distance metrics found the sample of self-reported GPT conservatives to be most similar to conservative participants of Graham et al. (2011), followed relatively closely by the moderate sample; the furthest away were always the liberal and libertarian samples.
“All three distance metrics found our sample of self-reported GPT conservatives to be most similar to conservative participants of Graham et al. (2011). This was always followed relatively closely by the moderate sample. The two furthest away were always the liberal sample (furthest away with respect to cosine similarity metric) and the libertarian sample (furthest away with respect to the L1 and L”
From Diminished diversity-of-thought in a standard large language model (2024) · cites this paper as Graham et al. (2011)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Bhagat, R. S., & Hofstede, G. (2002) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2002.7389951 · Cited by 21,680 · see citing works
Schwartz, S. H. (1992) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60281-6 · Cited by 14,619 · see citing works
The Handbook of Social Psychology
Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518 · see citing works
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Second, we wanted to supplement the abstract relevance assessments—which, as selftheories about how one makes moral judgments, may be inaccurate with regard to actual moral judgments (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977)—with contextualized items that could more directly gauge actual moral judgments.”
BackgroundThe Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism
Trivers, R. L. (1971) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/406755 · Cited by 11,010 · see citing works
In A Different Voice: Psychological Theory And Women's Development
Gilligan, & Carol, C. (1982) · Cited by 10,877 · see citing works
(1976) · Cited by 10,423 · see citing works
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. (2005) · University of Massachusetts Amherst · doi:10.7275/jyj1-4868 · Cited by 10,297 · see citing works
Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach.
Davis, M. H. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 · Cited by 10,272 · see citing works
(1973) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 10,144 · see citing works
Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research.
Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.4.3.272 · Cited by 9,587 · see citing works
The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.
Haidt, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814 · Cited by 8,048 · see citing works
Self-citation(1999) · Cited by 7,995 · see citing works
Individualism and Collectivism
Hayek, F. A. (1976) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203991718-8 · Cited by 6,080 · see citing works
Altruistic punishment in humans
Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2002) · Nature · doi:10.1038/415137a · Cited by 5,616 · see citing works
Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes.
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741 · Cited by 4,872 · see citing works
The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies.
Fuller, C. J., Mauss, M., & Halls, W. D. (1992) · Man · doi:10.2307/2804090 · Cited by 4,829 · see citing works
An fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1062872 · Cited by 4,561 · see citing works
Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations.
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015141 · Cited by 4,560 · see citing works
Self-citationHandbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543 · see citing works
, A. (2010) · Cited by 3,771 · see citing works
Influence : science and practice
Cialdini, R. B. (1985) · Cited by 3,581 · see citing works
The self-importance of moral identity
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1423 · Cited by 3,522 · see citing works
Handbook of socialization: theory and research
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-0345 · Cited by 3,405 · see citing works
Lewis, M., & Haviland, J. M. (1993) · Cited by 3,308 · see citing works
The Development of Social Knowledge. Morality and Convention
Eggleston, S. J., & Turiel, E. (1985) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3121515 · Cited by 2,645 · see citing works
The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations.
Fiske, A. P. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.4.689 · Cited by 2,510 · see citing works
When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions that Liberals may not Recognize
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. (2007) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z · Cited by 2,385 · see citing works
Self-citationHandbook of research methods in personality psychology
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-2315 · Cited by 2,378 · see citing works
Douglas, M. (1966) · Cited by 2,247 · see citing works
Sears, D. O. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515 · Cited by 2,138 · see citing works
Intuitive ethics: how innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2004) · Daedalus · doi:10.1162/0011526042365555 · Cited by 1,982 · see citing works
Self-citationAssessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population.
Levenson, M. R., Kiehl, K. A., & Fitzpatrick, C. M. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.1.151 · Cited by 1,775 · see citing works
Affect, culture, and morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog?
Haidt, J., Koller, S. H., & Dias, M. G. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.613 · Cited by 1,686 · see citing works
Self-citationStrangers to ourselves: discovering the adaptive unconscious
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3712 · Cited by 1,641 · see citing works
Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 · Cited by 1,632 · see citing works
Self-citationReflections on the Revolution in France
Burke, E. K. (2018) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv19fvzzk.29 · Cited by 1,617 · see citing works
The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology
Huddy, L., Sears, D. O., Levy, J. S., & Jerit, J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199760107.001.0001 · Cited by 1,609 · see citing works
Kant, I., & Wood, A. W. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511813306.013 · Cited by 1,567 · see citing works
The end of the end of ideology.
Jost, J. T. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.7.651 · Cited by 1,533 · see citing works
Tetlock, P. E., Kristel, O. V., Elson, S. B., Green, M. C., & Lerner, J. S. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.853 · Cited by 1,400 · see citing works
Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think
Lakoff, G. P. (1996) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,276 · see citing works
Kohlberg, L. (1971) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-498640-4.50011-1 · Cited by 1,128 · see citing works
A Rose by Any Name? The Values Construct
Rohan, M. J. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0403_4 · Cited by 1,067 · see citing works
(2006) · Cited by 1,041 · see citing works
The Role of Conscious Reasoning and Intuition in Moral Judgment
Cushman, F. A., Young, L., & HAUSER, M. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01834.x · Cited by 1,008 · see citing works
The Emergence of morality in young children
(1988) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.26-1805 · Cited by 950 · see citing works
A creative personality scale for the Adjective Check List.
Gough, H. G. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.8.1398 · Cited by 913 · see citing works
Human fronto–mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation
Moll, J., Krueger, F., Zahn, R., Pardini, M., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Grafman, J. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0604475103 · Cited by 900 · see citing works
Joyce, R. (2005) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/2880.001.0001 · Cited by 773 · see citing works
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2008) · The Innate Mind, Volume 3 · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195332834.003.0019 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
Self-citationPushing moral buttons: The interaction between personal force and intention in moral judgment
Greene, J. D., Cushman, F. A., Stewart, L. E., Kelly Lowenberg, C., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2009) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.001 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
DIT2: Devising and testing a revised instrument of moral judgment.
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D. F., Thoma, S. J., & Bebeau, M. J. (1999) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.644 · Cited by 595 · see citing works
Cognitive Development and Epistemology
(1971) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-04994-8 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
Shweder, R. A., Mahapatra, M., & Miller, J. G. (1990) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139173728.005 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
Haidt, J. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00063.x · Cited by 533 · see citing works
Self-citationSinger, P. (1993) · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Universalism Values and the Inclusiveness of Our Moral Universe
Schwartz, S. H. (2007) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022107308992 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Sexual Morality: The Cultures and Emotions of Conservatives and Liberals<sup>1</sup>
Haidt, J., & Hersh, M. A. (2001) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02489.x · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Self-citationConstruction of a short version of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) scale
Zakrisson, I. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.026 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
(2008) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Values, ideology, and the structure of political attitudes.
Feldman, S. (2003) · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Judging Social Issues: Difficulties, Inconsistencies, and Consistencies
Turiel, E., Hildebrandt, C., Wainryb, C., & Saltzstein, H. D. (1991) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1166056 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to "Pragmatism".
Russell, J. E., & James, W. (1910) · The Journal of Philosophy Psychology and Scientific Methods · doi:10.2307/2011580 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Brandt, A. M., & Rozin, P. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203707463 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Welfare States, Solidarity and Justice Principles: Does the Type Really Matter?
Arts, J. (2001) · Acta Sociologica · doi:10.1080/00016990152696385 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Sacred values and evil adversaries: A moral foundations approach.
Graham, J., & Haidt, J. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13091-001 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Self-citationOlatunji, B. O., Haidt, J., McKay, D., & David, B. (2008) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.03.009 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Self-citationThe birth of the mind: how a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human thought
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-5588 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
The social psychology of morality: Exploring the causes of good and evil.
(2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13091-000 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Moral Cognition: Explaining the Gender Difference in Antisocial Behavior
Barriga, A. Q., Morrison, E. M., Liau, A. K., & Gibbs, J. C. (2001) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.2001.0020 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Disgust sensitivity as a function of the Big Five and gender
Druschel, B. A., & Sherman, M. F. (1999) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00196-2 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
The relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation.
Emler, N., Renwick, S. J. D., & Malone, B. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1073 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Quandaries and Virtues: Against Reductivism in Ethics
Pincoffs, E. L. (1986) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 176 · see citing works
The meaning of personality test scores.
Hogan, R. T., & Nicholson, R. A. (1988) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.8.621 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Muller, J. Z. (1997) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9780691213118 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Stich, S. G. W. (2008) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195332834.001.0001 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Social Reasoning in IJO Children and Adolescents in Nigerian Communities
Hollos, M., Leis, P. E., & Turiel, E. (1986) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022002186017003007 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
The importance of being valid: Reliability and the process of construct validation.
John, O. P., & Soto, C. J. (2007) · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Moral Divisions within Countries between Orthodoxy and Progressivism: India and the United States
Jensen, L. A. (1998) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.2307/1388031 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Gert, B., & Gert, J. (2002) · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Sullivan, E. V. (2009) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000271568 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Domain Denigration and Process Preference in Academic Psychology
Rozin, P. N. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00021.x · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Reviving Rawls's linguistic analogy: Operative principles and the causal structure of moral actions
HAUSER, M. D., Young, L., & Cushman, F. A. (2007) · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Shweder, R. A. (1982) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/021204 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A managerial potential scale for the California Psychological Inventory.
Gough, H. G. (1984) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.233 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
A socioanalytic theory of moral development
Hogan, R. T., Johnson, J. A., & Emler, N. (1978) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.23219780203 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Ideology and Intuition in Moral Education
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Rimm‐Kaufman, S. E. (2008) · International Journal of Developmental Science · doi:10.3233/dev-2008-2306 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationThe great justice debate : Kohlberg criticism
Puka, B. (1994) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 91 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Haidt J Kesebir S Fiske ST Gilbert D Lindzey G Morality Handbook of Social Psychology 2010 5th Edition Hoboken, NJ Wiley 797 832
- Hofstede G Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations 2001 New York Sage Publications
- James W Pragmatism: A new name for some old ways of thinking and The Meaning of Truth 1907/1998 Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press
- Mill JS On liberty 1859/2003 New Haven, CT Yale University Press
- Singer P Practical ethics 1979 Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S. P., Motyl, M. S., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S. P., & Ditto, P. H. (2013) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4 · Cited by 1,815 · see citing works
Self-citationHo, A. K., Sidanius, J., Kteily, N., Sheehy-Skeffington, J. A., Felicia Pratto, B., Henkel, K. E., Foels, R., & Stewart, A. L. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000033 · Cited by 1,151 · see citing works
Mind Perception Is the Essence of Morality
Gray, K., Young, L., & Waytz, A. (2012) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2012.651387 · Cited by 1,008 · see citing works
Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies
Curry, O. S., Mullins, D., & Whitehouse, H. (2019) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/701478 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
Understanding Libertarian Morality: The Psychological Dispositions of Self-Identified Libertarians
Iyer, R., Koleva, S. P., Graham, J., Ditto, P. H., & Haidt, J. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042366 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Self-citationTracing the threads: How five moral concerns (especially Purity) help explain culture war attitudes
Koleva, S. P., Graham, J., Iyer, R., Ditto, P. H., & Haidt, J. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.01.006 · Cited by 682 · see citing works
Self-citationA mutualistic approach to morality: The evolution of fairness by partner choice
Baumard, N., André, J., & Sperber, D. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11002202 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
The Theory of Dyadic Morality: Reinventing Moral Judgment by Redefining Harm
Schein, C., & Gray, K. J. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317698288 · Cited by 667 · see citing works
Personality Traits and Personal Values: A Meta-Analysis
Parks-Leduc, L., Feldman, G., & Bardi, A. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314538548 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
Hofmann, W., Wisneski, D. C., Brandt, M. J., & Skitka, L. J. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1251560 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Corporate social responsibility as a source of employee satisfaction
Bauman, C. W., & Skitka, L. J. (2012) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2012.11.002 · Cited by 570 · see citing works
Concept Creep: Psychology's Expanding Concepts of Harm and Pathology
Haslam, N. (2016) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2016.1082418 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Getting Liberals and Conservatives to Go Green: Political Ideology and Congruent Appeals
Kidwell, B., Farmer, A., & Hardesty, D. M. (2013) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/670610 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Vuong, Q., Bui, Q.-K., La, V., Vuong, T., Nguyen, V.-H. T., Ho, M., Nguyen, H. T., & Ho, T. M. (2018) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-018-0189-2 · Cited by 469 · see citing works
Beyond sacrificial harm: a two-dimensional model of utilitarian psychology
Kahane, G., Everett, J. A. C., Earp, B. D., Caviola, L., Faber, N. S., Crockett, M. J., & Savulescu, J. (2018) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000093 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Ellemers, N., van der Toorn, J., Paunov, Y., & van Leeuwen, T. N. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868318811759 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
The 12 Item Social and Economic Conservatism Scale (SECS)
Everett, J. A. C. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0082131 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Does moral identity effectively predict moral behavior?: A meta-analysis
Hertz, S. G., & Krettenauer, T. (2016) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000062 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Boer, D., & Fischer, R. D. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0031347 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Lin, S., & Niu, H. (2018) · Business Strategy and the Environment · doi:10.1002/bse.2233 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
On the Importance of Being Moral: The Distinctive Role of Morality in Social Judgment
Brambilla, M., & Leach, C. W. (2014) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2014.32.4.397 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Hitlin, S., & Vaisey, S. (2013) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145628 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215607842 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Moral Support: How Moral Values Shape Foreign Policy Attitudes
Kertzer, J. D., Powers, K. E., Rathbun, B. C., & Iyer, R. (2014) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381614000073 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Self-citationEveryday Consequences of Analytic Thinking
Pennycook, G., Fugelsang, J. A., & Koehler, D. J. (2015) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721415604610 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Clifford, S., Iyengar, V., Cabeza, R., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-014-0551-2 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Morality beyond the WEIRD: How the nomological network of morality varies across cultures.
Atari, M., Haidt, J., Graham, J., Koleva, S. P., Stevens, S. T., & Dehghani, M. (2023) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000470 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociation of moral values with vaccine hesitancy
Amin, A., Bednarczyk, R., Ray, C. E., Melchiori, K. J., Graham, J., Huntsinger, J., & Omer, S. (2017) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-017-0256-5 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding (and Reducing) Inaction on Climate Change
Hornsey, M. J., & Fielding, K. S. (2019) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12058 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Teachers' AI-TPACK: exploring the relationship between knowledge elements
Ning, Y., Zhang, C., Xu, B., Zhou, Y., & Wijaya, T. T. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16030978 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
The Science of Wisdom in a Polarized World: Knowns and Unknowns
Grossmann, I., Weststrate, N. M., Ardelt, M., Brienza, J. P., Dong, M., Ferrari, M., Fournier, M. A., Hu, C. S., Nusbaum, H. C., & Vervaeke, J. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1750917 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
MTurk Character Misrepresentation: Assessment and Solutions
Sharpe Wessling, K., Huber, J., & Netzer, O. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucx053 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Are liars ethical? On the tension between benevolence and honesty
Levine, E. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.005 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., & Haidt, J. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050092 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Self-citationThe myth of harmless wrongs in moral cognition: Automatic dyadic completion from sin to suffering.
Gray, K. J., Schein, C., & Ward, A. F. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0036149 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Moral reframing: A technique for effective and persuasive communication across political divides
Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2019) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12501 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Moral character in the workplace.
Cohen, T. R., Panter, A. T., Turan, N., Morse, L., & Kim, Y. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037245 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Backer, C. J. S. D., & Hudders, L. (2014) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.08.011 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
An occasion for unselfing: Beautiful nature leads to prosociality
Zhang, J. W., Piff, P. K., Iyer, R., Koleva, S. P., & Keltner, D. J. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.11.008 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Self-citationMorality as Cooperation: A Problem-Centred Approach
Curry, O. S. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19671-8_2 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Public division about climate change rooted in conflicting socio-political identities
Bliuc, A.-M., McGarty, C., Thomas, E. F., Lala, G., Berndsen, M., & Misajon, R. (2015) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2507 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Kugler, M. B., Jost, J. T., & Noorbaloochi, S. (2014) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-014-0223-5 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
The whistleblower's dilemma and the fairness–loyalty tradeoff
Waytz, A. G., Dungan, J. A., & Young, L. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.07.002 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Taking Foreign Policy Personally: Personal Values and Foreign Policy Attitudes
Rathbun, B. C., Kertzer, J. D., Reifler, J., Goren, P., & Scotto, T. J. (2016) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqv012 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Zhang, J. W., Howell, R. T., & Iyer, R. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.12.013 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Self-citationEthical leadership: Mapping the terrain for concept cleanup and a future research agenda
Banks, G. C., Fischer, T., Gooty, J., & Stock, G. (2021) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101471 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Janoff‐Bulman, R., & Carnes, N. C. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313480274 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Trust predicts COVID-19 prescribed and discretionary behavioral intentions in 23 countries
Pagliaro, S., Sacchi, S., Pacilli, M. G., Brambilla, M., Lionetti, F., Bettache, K., Bianchi, M., Biella, M., Bonnot, V., Boza, M., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248334 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Ståhl, T., & van Prooijen, J.-W. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.026 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
How Moral Migration Geographically Segregates and Polarizes Groups
Motyl, M. S., Iyer, R., Oishi, S., Trawalter, S., & Nosek, B. A. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.10.010 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Self-citationShifting Liberal and Conservative Attitudes Using Moral Foundations Theory
Day, M. V., Fiske, S., Downing, E., & Trail, T. E. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214551152 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
The Moral Dyad: A Fundamental Template Unifying Moral Judgment
Gray, K. J., Waytz, A. G., & Young, L. (2012) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2012.686247 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
I'm Moral, but I Won't Help You: The Distinct Roles of Empathy and Justice in Donations
Lee, S., Winterich, K. P., & Ross, W. T. (2014) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/677226 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Curry, O. S., Jones Chesters, M., & Van Lissa, C. J. (2019) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.10.008 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Brandt, M. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031751 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Cultural Psychology: Beyond East and West
Kitayama, S., & Salvador, C. E. (2023) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-021723-063333 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Persuasion for Good: Towards a Personalized Persuasive Dialogue System for Social Good
Wang, X., Shi, W., Kim, R., Oh, Y., Yang, S., Zhang, J., & Yu, Z. (2019) · Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics · doi:10.18653/v1/p19-1566 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Global Human Identification and Citizenship: A Review of Psychological Studies
McFarland, S., Hackett, J. D., Hamer, K., Katzarska-Miller, I., Malsch, A., Reese, G., & Reysen, S. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12572 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Cultural differences in moral judgment and behavior, across and within societies
Graham, J., Meindl, P., Beall, E., Johnson, K. M., & Zhang, L. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.007 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Self-citationBiasing moral decisions by exploiting the dynamics of eye gaze
Pärnamets, P., Johansson, P., Hall, L., Balkenius, C., Spivey, M. J., & Richardson, D. C. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1415250112 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Moralized Leadership: The Construction and Consequences of Ethical Leader Perceptions
Fehr, R., Yam, K. C., & Dang, C. T. (2014) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2013.0358 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Schein, C., & Gray, K. J. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215591501 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Scott Atran, B. (2016) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/685495 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Consumer reactions to corporate social responsibility: The role of CSR domains
Baskentli, S., Sen, S., Du, S., & Bhattacharya, C. (2018) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.07.046 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Moral foundations and political orientation: Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Kivikangas, J. M., Fernández‐Castilla, B., Järvelä, S., Ravaja, N., & Lönnqvist, J. (2020) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000308 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
How Words Do the Work of Politics: Moral Foundations Theory and the Debate over Stem Cell Research
Clifford, S., & Jerit, J. (2013) · Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381613000492 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Valuing myself over others: The Dark Triad traits and moral and social values
Jonason, P. K., Strosser, G. L., Kroll, C. H., Duineveld, J. J., & Baruffi, S. A. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.045 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Winterich, K. P., Zhang, Y., & Mittal, V. (2012) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.05.002 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Ideology Justifies Morality: Political Beliefs Predict Moral Foundations
Hatemi, P., Crabtree, C. D., & Smith, K. B. (2019) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12448 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Investigating right wing authoritarianism with a very short authoritarianism scale
Bizumic, B., & Duckitt, J. (2018) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.v6i1.835 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
A Constructionist Review of Morality and Emotions
Cameron, C. D., Lindquist, K. A., & Gray, K. J. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314566683 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Hopp, F. R., Fisher, J., Cornell, D., Huskey, R., & Weber, R. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-020-01433-0 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Moral psychology for the twenty-first century
Haidt, J. (2013) · Journal of Moral Education · doi:10.1080/03057240.2013.817327 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Self-citationFederico, C. M., Weber, C. R., Ergun, D., & Hunt, C. V. (2013) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12006 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Smith, K. B., Alford, J. R., Hibbing, J. R., Martin, N. G., & Hatemi, P. (2016) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12255 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Enke, B. (2020) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/708857 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
The primacy of morality in impression development: Theory, research, and future directions
Brambilla, M., Sacchi, S., Rusconi, P., & Goodwin, G. P. (2021) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2021.03.001 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Moral Foundations and Heterogeneity in Ideological Preferences
Weber, C. R., & Federico, C. M. (2012) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00922.x · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Why Are Conservatives More Punitive Than Liberals? A Moral Foundations Approach
Silver, J., & Silver, E. (2017) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/lhb0000232 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Situational Moral Disengagement: Can the Effects of Self-Interest be Mitigated?
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Baker, V. L., & Martín, S. (2013) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1909-6 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
The Development of Social Categorization
Rhodes, M., & Baron, A. S. (2019) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084824 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Moral character: What it is and what it does
Cohen, T. R., & Morse, L. (2014) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2014.08.003 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
The role of analytic thinking in moral judgements and values
Pennycook, G., Cheyne, J. A., Barr, N., Koehler, D. J., & Fugelsang, J. A. (2014) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2013.865000 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Understanding the process of moralization: How eating meat becomes a moral issue.
Feinberg, M., Kovacheff, C., Teper, R., & Inbar, Y. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000149 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Pennycook, G., Cheyne, J. A., Koehler, D. J., & Fugelsang, J. A. (2020) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500007439 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Pohling, R., Bzdok, D., Eigenstetter, M., Stumpf, S., & Strobel, A. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2569-5 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Purity homophily in social networks.
Dehghani, M., JOHNSON, K., Hoover, J., Sagi, E., Garten, J., Parmar, N., Vaisey, S., Iliev, R. I., & Graham, J. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000139 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Self-citationSmith, I. H., Aquino, K. F., Koleva, S. P., & Graham, J. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614534450 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Self-citationWhen and Why We See Victims as Responsible
Niemi, L., & Young, L. (2016) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216653933 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Attributions of morality and mind to artificial intelligence after real-world moral violations
Shank, D. B., & DeSanti, A. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.014 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
The cognitive and cultural foundations of moral behavior
Purzycki, B. G., Pisor, A. C., Apicella, C. L., Atkinson, Q. D., Cohen, E. E. A., Henrich, J., McElreath, R. L., McNamara, R. A., Ara Norenzayan, A., Willard, A. K., et al. (2018) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.04.004 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Impure or Just Weird? Scenario Sampling Bias Raises Questions About the Foundation of Morality
Gray, K., & Keeney, J. E. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550615592241 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Predicting Counterproductive Work Behavior from Guilt Proneness
Cohen, T. R., Panter, A. T., & Turan, N. (2012) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1326-2 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
What We Owe to Family: The Impact of Special Obligations on Moral Judgment
McManus, R. M., Max Kleiman-weiner, A., & Young, L. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619900321 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Polarization in America: two possible futures
Heltzel, G., & Laurin, K. (2020) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.03.008 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Higgins, E. T., & Cornwell, J. F. M. (2016) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.04.005 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The role of a “common is moral” heuristic in the stability and change of moral norms.
Lindström, B., Jangard, S., Selbing, I., & Olsson, A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000365 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Human and Nature‐Caused Hazards: The Affect Heuristic Causes Biased Decisions
Siegrist, M., & Sütterlin, B. (2014) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.12179 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Regional variation in pathogen prevalence predicts endorsement of group-focused moral concerns
van Leeuwen, F., Park, J. H., Koenig, B. L., & Graham, J. (2012) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.12.005 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Self-citationThe psychology of whistleblowing
Dungan, J. A., Waytz, A. G., & Young, L. (2015) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.07.005 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
- Authors
- Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 366-385
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- PMC
- PMC3116962
- OpenAlex
- W2096910467
- Cited by
- 2,666
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 169 · 2025: 254 · 2024: 245 · 2023: 242 · 2022: 269 · 2021: 245 · 2020: 212 · 2019: 215 · 2018: 174 · 2017: 157 · 2016: 137 · 2015: 114 · 2014: 92 · 2013: 77 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 37.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute of Education Sciences
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH68447)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Psychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Ethics in Business and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Values and Moral Education
- Keywords
- moral foundations, Moral Foundations Questionnaire, moral intuitions, harm/care, ingroup loyalty, moral competence, empathy, justice, personality traits, cultural differences in morality, cross-cultural comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attitude, Female, Humans, Judgment, Male, Morals, Pilot Projects, Surveys and Questionnaires, Social Values, Reproducibility of Results, Intuition
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
