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The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies.
Abstract
Research on bystander intervention has produced a great number of studies showing that the presence of other people in a critical situation reduces the likelihood that an individual will help. As the last systematic review of bystander research was published in 1981 and was not a quantitative meta-analysis in the modern sense, the present meta-analysis updates the knowledge about the bystander effect and its potential moderators. The present work (a) integrates the bystander literature from the 1960s to 2010, (b) provides statistical tests of potential moderators, and (c) presents new theoretical and empirical perspectives on the novel finding of non-negative bystander effects in certain dangerous emergencies as well as situations where bystanders are a source of physical support for the potentially intervening individual. In a fixed effects model, data from over 7,700 participants and 105 independent effect sizes revealed an overall effect size of g = -0.35. The bystander effect was attenuated when situations were perceived as dangerous (compared with non-dangerous), perpetrators were present (compared with non-present), and the costs of intervention were physical (compared with non-physical). This pattern of findings is consistent with the arousal-cost-reward model, which proposes that dangerous emergencies are recognized faster and more clearly as real emergencies, thereby inducing higher levels of arousal and hence more helping. We also identified situations where bystanders provide welcome physical support for the potentially intervening individual and thus reduce the bystander effect, such as when the bystanders were exclusively male, when they were naive rather than passive confederates or only virtually present persons, and when the bystanders were not strangers.
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“A more recent meta-analysis by Fischer et al. (2011) found that perceptions of dangerous situations made the bystander effect less likely.”
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“Fischer et al. (2011) used meta-analytic techniques to compare the bystander effect for dangerous and nondangerous situations.”
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“The bystander effect is an extensively researched phenomenon (for a review, see Fischer et al., 2011) that posits that individuals are less likely to exhibit prosocial behavior during an emergency situation if other bystanders are present than if they are not.”
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“The current work showed no classic bystander effect in cyberbullying, meaning that neither participants’ feeling of responsibility nor their intention to intervene linearly decreased with an increasing number of bystanders (Fischer et al., 2011; Latané and Darley, 1970).”
BackgroundInfluentialSasson, C., Haukoos, J. S., Bond, C., Rabe, M., Colbert, S. H., King, R., Sayre, M. R., & Heisler, M. (2013) · Circulation Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes · doi:10.1161/circoutcomes.111.000097 · Cited by 161
“Previous research has focused on why people do not do CPR, such as fear of doing it incorrectly,(27,38) breathing into someone’s mouth,(20,39) or litigation concerns.(40,41) Our focus group participants identified barriers that are more upstream to even performing CPR, the reasons why people living in high-risk neighb…”
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“A meta-analysis found that the bystander effect was less likely to occur in more dangerous situations where men are present, suggesting that people are more likely to intervene when they believe bystanders with higher physical strength may be available to help (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe Effectiveness of Social Norms in Fighting Fake News on Social Media
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“Given that situational factors greatly constrain actual acts of help (Fischer et al., 2011), it seems probable that a trait like self-compassion will affect help in only some situations.”
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“Several other studies (Fischer et al. 2006; Fischer et al. 2011; Kalafat et al. 1993; Latané and Nida 1981) have also investigated various characteristics of the situation and the bystanders to explain the effect, such as the competence of the bystanders, the age and similarity of the bystanders,…”
BackgroundInterventions Against Norm Violations
Baumert, A., Halmburger, A., & Schmitt, M. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213490032 · Cited by 113
“Similarly, bystander effects that typically reduce helping (Latané & Nida, 1981) do not seem to affect moral courage (Fischer et al., 2011; Harari, Harari, & White, 1985; Schwartz & Gottlieb, 1976).”
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“Subsequent research has cast doubt on many of these findings (Fischer et al., 2011), but for now we do not argue with the conclusions of these studies.”
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“Decades of research have examined predictors of bystander behavior in response to emergency and non-emergency situations (for a review, see Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“Previous studies on social influence effects in emergency situations mostly focused on negative effects on helping behavior (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“…has suggested that these processes are independent and operate at different stages of the decision-making process (Latané & Darley, 1970; Schwartz & Gottlieb, 1976; see also Fischer et al., 2011, for a recent meta-analysis of bystander intervention in emergencies and discussion of these processes).”
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“…exogenously but it is determined endogenously by the behaviour of others, giving rise to equilibrium considerations.6 Another related strand of literature in social psychology concerns the so-called bystander effect (see e.g. Latané and Darley, 1968 and for a recent overview Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“Social psychology research on the bystander effect indicates that other people’s presence reduces the likelihood that an individual will help, especially when situations are deemed to be nonurgent [37].”
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“For example, psychoeducation campaigns aimed at reducing victim-blaming and promoting intervening behaviours by bystanders has shown to be an effective mean of preventing inter-personal violence in societal settings (Fischer et al. , 2011; Wijaya et al. , 2022).”
Labhardt, D., Holdsworth, E., Brown, S., & Howat, D. (2017) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2017.05.005 · Cited by 97
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“Students who feel competent and understand the concept of “diffusion of responsibility” will also be more likely to help [27-29].”
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“Indeed, the only hit for the keyword “personality” in a recent overview (Fischer et al., 2011) was for journal names in the reference list (e.”
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“Other researchers specifically investigated barriers to bystanders helping (Burn, 2009) including the impact that danger or safety concerns by bystanders may have on intervention (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundHansen, C. M., Rosenkranz, S. M., Folke, F., Zinckernagel, L., Tjørnhøj‐Thomsen, T., Torp-Pedersen, C. T., Søndergaard, K. B., Nichol, G., & Rod, M. H. (2017) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.116.004572 · Cited by 91
“This is supported by studies of healthcare professionals’ performance as well as social psychology studies of bystanders to emergencies.(44,47) A recent study of video recordings of OHCA identified a lack of teamwork, even when many bystanders were present.”
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Leone, R. M., Haikalis, M., Parrott, D. J., & DiLillo, D. (2017) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000155 · Cited by 103
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BackgroundPotential Suicide Ideation and Its Association With Observing Bullying at School
Rivers, I., & Noret, N. F. (2013) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.10.279 · Cited by 87
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‘I could help, but . . .’: A dynamic sensemaking model of workplace bullying bystanders
Ng, K., Niven, K. R., & Hoel, H. (2019) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726719884617 · Cited by 96
Naab, T. K., Kalch, A., & Meitz, T. G. K. (2016) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444816670923 · Cited by 84
“At the same time, response agreement may underline the need for flagging because the norm violation doubled and thus increase flagging behavior (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialWong, R. Y. M., Cheung, C. M. K., Xiao, B. S., & Thatcher, J. B. (2021) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2020.0983 · Cited by 101
LGBT discrimination on campus and heterosexual bystanders: Understanding intentions to intervene.
Dessel, A. B., Goodman, K. D., & Woodford, M. R. (2016) · Journal of Diversity in Higher Education · doi:10.1037/dhe0000015 · Cited by 84
“A metaanalysis of the bystander effect found that, among other things, knowing other bystanders lowered the bystander effect and increased intervening behaviors (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow Emotions Shape Moral Behavior: Some Answers (and Questions) for the Field of Moral Psychology
Teper, R., Zhong, C., & Inzlicht, M. (2015) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12154 · Cited by 90
“The numerous experiments on bystander intervention have the same issue (see Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSocial Projection Can Solve Social Dilemmas
Krueger, J. I., DiDonato, T. E., & Freestone, D. M. (2012) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2012.641167 · Cited by 80
Self-citationCapturing violence in the night-time economy: A review of established and emerging methodologies
Philpot, R., Liebst, L. S., Møller, K., Lindegaard, M. R., & Levine, M. (2019) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.004 · Cited by 87
Bennett, S. A., & Banyard, V. L. (2014) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0037708 · Cited by 80
When Online Harassment Is Perceived as Justified
Blackwell, L., Chen, T., Schoenebeck, S. Y., & Lampe, C. A. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v12i1.15036 · Cited by 80
“Empirical research confirms that the presence of bystanders in an emergency situation reduces helping responses (Fischer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundWho’s to blame?: The effects of victim disclosure on bystander reactions to cyberbullying
Schacter, H. L., Greenberg, S., & Juvonen, J. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.018 · Cited by 81
“Given that the likelihood of intervention decreases as number of bystanders increases (Fischer et al., 2011), the large size of online audiences may account for lower rates of intervention.”
BackgroundBalakrishnan, V. (2018) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2018.02.002 · Cited by 86
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Dimensions of empathy and bystander intervention in bullying in elementary school
Fredrick, S. S., Jenkins, L. N., & Ray, K. (2020) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2020.03.001 · Cited by 75
Bystander Intervention Among College Men
Orchowski, L. M., Berkowitz, A. D., Boggis, J. S., & Oesterle, D. W. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515581904 · Cited by 84
McMahon, S., Peterson, N. A., Winter, S. C., Palmer, J. E., Postmus, J. L., & Koenick, R. A. (2015) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-015-9740-0 · Cited by 74
Individual and Social Predictors of Prosocial Behavior among Chinese Adolescents in Hong Kong
Lai, F. H., Siu, A. M. H., & Shek, D. T. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2015.00039 · Cited by 73
Kazerooni, F., Taylor, S. H., Bazarova, N. N., & Whitlock, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmy005 · Cited by 74
“These results mirror the finding of a meta-analysis on bystander intervention about attenuation of bystander apathy with severe content (Fischer et al., 2011), as having multiple offenders targeting a victim increased perceived hurt in our study, especially when they attacked with original tweets.”
ResultMeijer, E., van der Kleij, R., & Chavannes, N. H. (2019) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-019-4527-x · Cited by 72
Is race still relevant? Student perceptions and experiences of racism in higher education
Wong, B., ElMorally, R., Copsey-Blake, M., Highwood, E. J., & Singarayer, J. S. (2020) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2020.1831441 · Cited by 73
“The bystander effect is generally stronger when the perceived danger is considered less urgent (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBrooks, S. C., Clegg, G. R., Bray, J., Deakin, C. D., Perkins, G. D., Ringh, M., Smith, C. M., Link, M. S., Merchant, R. M., Pezo-Morales, J., et al. (2022) · Resuscitation · doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2021.11.032 · Cited by 72
Ziegele, M., Naab, T. K., & Jost, P. (2019) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444819870130 · Cited by 72
“Step 3: feeling responsible After perceiving an incident as harmful, bystanders need to feel responsible to engage rather than transfer responsibility to other people (Fischer et al., 2011; Thornberg, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialLiebst, L. S., Philpot, R., Bernasco, W., Dausel, K. L., Ejbye‐Ernst, P., Nicolaisen, M. H., & Lindegaard, M. R. (2019) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21853 · Cited by 84
“The bystander research field has for decades focused on people presence as the chief predictor of intervention behavior—initially as an explanation of nonintervention (Latané & Darley, 1970), and more recently, in dangerous contexts, as a facilitator of intervention (Fischer et al., 2011).”
InfluentialKanov, J. M., Powley, E. H., & Walshe, N. D. (2016) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726716673144 · Cited by 69
“…on the bystander effect suggests that focal actors may refrain from taking action in the face of suffering if it is not unambiguously clear that someone is suffering, especially when there are real or perceived negative consequences associated with compassionate action (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMcGill, K., Sackley, C. M., Godwin, J., McGarry, J., & Brady, M. (2020) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-019-3991-2 · Cited by 65
Reward and Philanthropy: The Role of Contributor Motivation in Crowdfunding
Ryu, S., Park, J., Kim, K., & Kim, Y. (2017) · International Journal of Electronic Commerce · doi:10.1080/10864415.2020.1715531 · Cited by 70
Standing up or standing by: Bystander intervention in cyberbullying on social media
Wang, S. (2020) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444820902541 · Cited by 67
“Although more severe emergencies produce greater likelihood of intervention (e.g. Fischer et al., 2011), bystanders tend to recognize a high-severity situation as more of a problem and less safe to intervene in than a low-severity situation (Bennett and Banyard, 2016).”
BackgroundBystander training for faculty: A promising approach to tackling microaggressions in the academy
Haynes, M. C., Metinyurt, T., Li, Y. L., Gonzales, J. E., & Bond, M. A. (2021) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100882 · Cited by 66
Thornberg, R., Wänström, L., Elmelid, R., Johansson, A., & Mellander, E. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09549-z · Cited by 66
Jenkins, L. N., & Fredrick, S. S. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0637-0 · Cited by 72
“For example, relationship to the victim (Levine 1999), danger of the situation (Fischer et al. 2006; Fischer et al. 2011), peer pressure (Pozzoli et al.”
BackgroundYou, L., & Lee, Y.-H. (2019) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2019.101284 · Cited by 66
What We Should Expect From Theories in Social Psychology
Lange, P. A. M. V. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868312453088 · Cited by 71
Who’s to blame? Dissimilarity as a cue in moral judgments of observed ostracism episodes.
Rudert, S. C., Sutter, D., Corrodi, V. C., & Greifeneder, R. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000122 · Cited by 63
Erlandsson, A., Jungstrand, A., & Västfjäll, D. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01475 · Cited by 70
“Several situational aspects are known to influence the perceived responsibility to help, and in order to increase generalizability we included many types of responsibility-manipulations.”
BackgroundZhang, Y., Yan, Z., Zhu, H., Shen, Y., Guo, Q., & Guo, Q. (2019) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2019.101423 · Cited by 57
Okay to say?: Initial validation of the Acceptability of Racial Microaggressions Scale.
Mekawi, Y., & Todd, N. R. (2018) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000201 · Cited by 58
Adolescent bystanders' perspectives of aggression in the online versus school environments☆
Patterson, L. J., Allan, A., & CROSS, D. S. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.02.003 · Cited by 56
Studying sexual aggression: A review of the evolution and validity of laboratory paradigms.
Davis, K. C., Parrott, D. J., George, W. H., Tharp, A. T., Hall, G. C. N., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2014) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0037662 · Cited by 57
“In fact, numerous prevention approaches currently exist that are founded upon decades of research on bystander intervention (for a review, see Fischer et al., 2011), and some bystander prevention programs result in short-term (Gidycz, Orchowski, & Berkowitz, 2011) or longer-term decreases in men’s…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., Heene, M., Wicher, M., & Kainbacher, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- Brown University (US)
- Universität Innsbruck (AT)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- University of Graz (AT)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 137
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 517-537
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2107050526
- Semantic Scholar
- 43e957f87e561c4d2d65715e6fe94e872b34299e
- Cited by
- 983
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 86 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 88.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- German Science Foundation(DFG) (FI 938/2-1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- bystander effect, bystander intervention, helping behavior, perceived danger, physical support, confederates
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Arousal, Emergencies, Fear, Female, Helping Behavior, Humans, Male, Social Control, Informal, Social Identification, Violence, Bias, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Crime Victims
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