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The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies.
Abstract
Research on bystander intervention has produced a great number of studies showing that the presence of other people in a critical situation reduces the likelihood that an individual will help. As the last systematic review of bystander research was published in 1981 and was not a quantitative meta-analysis in the modern sense, the present meta-analysis updates the knowledge about the bystander effect and its potential moderators. The present work (a) integrates the bystander literature from the 1960s to 2010, (b) provides statistical tests of potential moderators, and (c) presents new theoretical and empirical perspectives on the novel finding of non-negative bystander effects in certain dangerous emergencies as well as situations where bystanders are a source of physical support for the potentially intervening individual. In a fixed effects model, data from over 7,700 participants and 105 independent effect sizes revealed an overall effect size of g = -0.35. The bystander effect was attenuated when situations were perceived as dangerous (compared with non-dangerous), perpetrators were present (compared with non-present), and the costs of intervention were physical (compared with non-physical). This pattern of findings is consistent with the arousal-cost-reward model, which proposes that dangerous emergencies are recognized faster and more clearly as real emergencies, thereby inducing higher levels of arousal and hence more helping. We also identified situations where bystanders provide welcome physical support for the potentially intervening individual and thus reduce the bystander effect, such as when the bystanders were exclusively male, when they were naive rather than passive confederates or only virtually present persons, and when the bystanders were not strangers.
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“It has been found that if one person stands up, more are likely to do so, but if no one helps, people are left wondering what the right thing to do is (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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Jungert, T., & Perrin, S. G. (2019) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.10.001 · Cited by 17
Davidovic, A., Talbot, C. V., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. E., & Joinson, A. (2023) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmad027 · Cited by 17
Grzyb, T. (2016) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2016-0027 · Cited by 16
“Darley and Latane, as well as those who followed in their footsteps (meta-analysis of Fischer et al., 2011) conducted numerous natural and field studies which demonstrated the durability and constancy of that effect.”
Marsh, H. W., Reeve, J., Guo, J., Pekrun, R. H., Parada, R. H., Parker, P. D., Basarkod, G., Craven, R. G., Jang, H.-R., Dicke, T., et al. (2023) · PubMed Central · doi:10.1177/17456916221112919 · Cited by 16
“Considerable social-psychological research confirms the bystander-apathy effect, in which the presence of passive bystanders reduces the likelihood that an individual will help a victim (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAutomatic Influences of Priming on Prosocial Behavior
Abbate, C. S., Ruggieri, S. A., & Boca, S. (2013) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v9i3.603 · Cited by 16
“In fact, when an emergency situation occurs and people are alone, they were likely to help anyhow (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundWith a Little Help From My Friends: Bystander Context and Children's Attitude Toward Peer Helping
Sierksma, J., Thijs, J. T., & Verkuyten, M. (2013) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2013.872595 · Cited by 16
“However, our study examines explicit helping situations and several studies and real-life examples indicate that sometimes more help is provided in the presence of bystanding others compared to when one is alone (e.g., Fischer et al., 2011; Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2013).”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between Dating Violence and Bystander Behavior: An Initial Investigation
Woods, W. C., Shorey, R. C., Strauss, C. V., et al. (2016) · Partner Abuse · doi:10.1891/1946-6560.7.1.55 · Cited by 16
“Victims of sexual or physical violence may also view others’ violent situations as more severe, which are linked to greater intervention (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialHortensius, R., Neyret, S., Slater, M., & de Gelder, B. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196074 · Cited by 16
Walking the Plank: An Experimental Paradigm to Investigate Safety Voice
Noort, M. C., Reader, T. W., & Gillespie, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00668 · Cited by 19
“Similarly, research on bystander interventions of people in need of assistance (Darley and Latane, 1968; Fischer et al., 2011; Bennett et al., 2014) operationalised harm-prevention behaviours and these have included non-verbal (e.”
BackgroundSchwitzgebel, E. (2019) · Res Philosophica · doi:10.11612/resphil.1806 · Cited by 19
Reasonable expectations, moral responsibility, and empirical data
Hiller, F. R. (2019) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-019-01354-5 · Cited by 16
Taking Responsibility for Others and Use of Mental Contrasting
Sevincer, A. T., Musik, T., Degener, A., Greinert, A., & Oettingen, G. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219898569 · Cited by 16
“…bystanders who witnessed an accident and felt personal responsibility because they were the only person around were more likely to help than bystanders who had diffused responsibility because there were other people present (Darley & Latané, 1968; meta-analysis by Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundCitizen Willingness to Report Wildlife Crime
Leavitt, K., Wodahl, E. J., & Schweitzer, K. A. (2020) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2020.1738643 · Cited by 16
“…explored include traditional demographic variables such as gender, age, race/ethnicity, physical size of the bystander, as well as some unique variables, including the bystander’s physical size/strength and level of training or competency in responding to emergency situations (Fischer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialA CCTV-based analysis of target selection by guardians intervening in interpersonal conflicts
Ejbye‐Ernst, P., Lindegaard, M. R., & Bernasco, W. (2020) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/1477370820960338 · Cited by 16
“Previous studies have found that social relationships between guardians and antagonists increase the chance of intervention in a conflict (Fischer et al., 2011; Levine et al., 2011; Phillips and Cooney, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialEjbye‐Ernst, P. (2021) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azab121 · Cited by 16
Bystander Action Coils: Moving Beyond the Situational Model
Banyard, V. L. (2015) · SpringerBriefs in criminology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-23171-6_4 · Cited by 16
Meditation and the cultivation of virtue
Upton, C. L. (2017) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2016.1269883 · Cited by 16
Schaefer, L., & MAZEROLLE, L. G. (2017) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/0004865817721590 · Cited by 17
“This is consistent with bystander effect research, which demonstrates that people fail to take action when events are seen as non-dangerous and when no perpetrators are present at the time (Fischer et al., 2011).”
ResultMagid, K. H., Heard, D. G., & Sasson, C. (2018) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/josh.12634 · Cited by 16
Moir, E., Hart, T. C., Reynald, D. M., et al. (2018) · Crime Prevention and Community Safety · doi:10.1057/s41300-018-0057-4 · Cited by 16
Emergency Response Systems : Concepts, features, evaluation and design
Bram, S., & Vestergren, S. (2012) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 16
Metadata
- Authors
- Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., Heene, M., Wicher, M., & Kainbacher, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- Brown University (US)
- Universität Innsbruck (AT)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- University of Graz (AT)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 137
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 517-537
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2107050526
- Semantic Scholar
- 43e957f87e561c4d2d65715e6fe94e872b34299e
- Cited by
- 983
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 86 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 88.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- German Science Foundation(DFG) (FI 938/2-1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- bystander effect, bystander intervention, helping behavior, perceived danger, physical support, confederates
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Arousal, Emergencies, Fear, Female, Helping Behavior, Humans, Male, Social Control, Informal, Social Identification, Violence, Bias, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Crime Victims
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