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The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies.
Abstract
Research on bystander intervention has produced a great number of studies showing that the presence of other people in a critical situation reduces the likelihood that an individual will help. As the last systematic review of bystander research was published in 1981 and was not a quantitative meta-analysis in the modern sense, the present meta-analysis updates the knowledge about the bystander effect and its potential moderators. The present work (a) integrates the bystander literature from the 1960s to 2010, (b) provides statistical tests of potential moderators, and (c) presents new theoretical and empirical perspectives on the novel finding of non-negative bystander effects in certain dangerous emergencies as well as situations where bystanders are a source of physical support for the potentially intervening individual. In a fixed effects model, data from over 7,700 participants and 105 independent effect sizes revealed an overall effect size of g = -0.35. The bystander effect was attenuated when situations were perceived as dangerous (compared with non-dangerous), perpetrators were present (compared with non-present), and the costs of intervention were physical (compared with non-physical). This pattern of findings is consistent with the arousal-cost-reward model, which proposes that dangerous emergencies are recognized faster and more clearly as real emergencies, thereby inducing higher levels of arousal and hence more helping. We also identified situations where bystanders provide welcome physical support for the potentially intervening individual and thus reduce the bystander effect, such as when the bystanders were exclusively male, when they were naive rather than passive confederates or only virtually present persons, and when the bystanders were not strangers.
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“…been examined in social psychology, and refers to the idea that ‘ … an individual’s likelihood of helping decreases when passive bystanders are also present in a critical situation’ (taken from Fischer et al., 2011, p. 517; Darley & Latane, 1968; Latane & Darley, 1968; 1970; Latané & Nida, 1981).”
BackgroundBystander Intervention During College Women’s Experiences of Gender Prejudice
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“For example, a recent meta-analysis in this area suggests that bystander intervention is more likely when there is an imminent dangerous emergency (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“…emer-gencies, crime, bullying, off-campus and social settings) among various populations (e.g., high school students and strangers in public; Brewster & Tucker, 2016; Fischer et al., 2011; Jenkins & Nickerson, 2017; Latané & Darley, 1970; Silver & Jakeman, 2016) utilizing an individual-level lens.”
BackgroundOffending and victimization in prisons: New theoretical and empirical approaches
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“In the case of the latter, the so-called ‘bystander effect’ (Fischer et al. 2011, p. 517) may offer insight into our findings.”
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“In fact, numerous studies showed that the presence of others inhibits helping (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“…social memory and reinforced by sociocognitive processes of group appraisal for norms and “bystander effect”—where bystanders become less and less likely to intervene as the perceived group of bystanders grows larger (Dovidio, 1984; Fischer et al., 2011; Piliavin, Dovidio, Gaertner, & Clark, 1981).”
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“The “bystander effect” describes the tendency for people to be less inclined to assist others when in a group compared to when alone (see Fischer et al., 2011 for a comprehensive review).”
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“In social psychology, the ‘bystander effect’ consistently documents how the increased availability of other potential helpers – who are strangers – decreases the likelihood of helping across different settings (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“In their meta-analysis of bystander research, Fischer et al .”
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Tu, C.-C., Chang, M., & Chiao, Y. (2021) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-021-09789-3 · Cited by 13
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“Dangerous emergencies are likely to increase arousal, as the costs of nonintervention are obviously high for the victim (Fischer et al. 2011).”
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“Years of bystander research has supported the original findings that the greater the number of people involved, the less likely it is that any individual is likely to intervene (Fisher et al., 2011).”
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“For one, the bystander effect suggests that people may be less likely to help in situations where other witnesses are present (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“This is not a problem specific to AI, as it occurs in several contexts where responsibility is shared among many actors, such as climate change or the well-known bystander effect (Fischer et al., 2011 ).”
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“Social behavior The behavior of individuals in groups has been a prominent focus of numerous fields and includes some of the most popular findings in psychology (e.g., Asch, 1956; Fischer et al., 2011; Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973).”
BackgroundThe lonely bystander: ostracism leads to less helping in virtual bystander situations
van Bommel, M., van Prooijen, J., Elffers, H., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2016) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510.2016.1171796 · Cited by 13
“Decades of research indicated that the bystander effect is a robust phenomenon, and hard to attenuate or reverse (Fischer et al., 2011; Latané & Nida, 1981).”
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“…funding activity in the central period may be explained by a diffusion of responsibility, whereby funders are less inclined to support the project as it already has support, so they make an assumption that other investors will continue to contribute (Kuppuswamy & Bayus, 2013; Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“A recent metareview has argued that emotional contagion is a central factor influencing when third parties intervene in interpersonal conflicts (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“Research further identified key factors that could increase individuals’ chances of stepping in to help a person in danger, such as perceived level of dangerousness of the emergency or the victim’s and bystanders’ gender (Fischer et al., 2006, 2011).”
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“Other variables that play an important role are the assessment outcomes of (non)intervening, the degree of victim blaming, how private the problem is considered, and the severity of violence (Fisher et al., 2011; Gracia et al., 2009).”
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“They argue that dangerous situations are less ambiguous than non-dangerous situations, “which increases the cost of not helping the victim” (Fischer et al., 2011, p. 520).”
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“Depending on the number of bystanders there may be a diffusion of responsibility where none of the bystanders intervene because they believe one of the other witnesses will (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“It is also possible that the neighbours felt that this was the state’s problem, suggestive of a “bystander effect” (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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Mei, X. Y., Brataas, A., & Stothers, R. A. (2022) · Journal of Strategic Marketing · doi:10.1080/0965254x.2022.2127854 · Cited by 10
“The reason being they do not want to disclose or unintentionally self-reveal details about themselves (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe effectiveness of interventions for youth that activate the social network: a meta-analytic study
Koper, N., van der Heijden, R. M., Donk, S., Kieu, T., Creemers, H. E., van Dam, L., Branje, S., & Stams, G. J. J. M. (2024) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2024.2317714 · Cited by 10
“This may be explained through the mechanism of diffusion of responsibility (Darley & Latane, 1968; Fischer et al., 2011).”
Leverage Between the Buffering Effect and the Bystander Effect in Social Networking
Chiu, Y., & Chang, S.-C. (2015) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0377 · Cited by 10
“45,46 For example, if people perceive they are friends, they would be likely to help or respond to each other because of a sense of responsibility.”
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Beyond signed T-shirts: A socio-technological model of equity crowdfunding adoption
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“In this case, a difference may be detectable in the context of a less violent scenario, given that responses to violence become homogeneous as severity increases (Fischer et al., 2011).”
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“This approach is founded on an extensive social psychological literature (Fischer et al., 2011), and DeGue and colleagues (2014) concluded that bystander intervention programs have “substantial potential” for reducing SA (DeGue et al.”
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“Nevertheless, research indicates that the diffusion of responsibility can also exist in online contexts [27], suggesting that there need only be the “perceived” presence of other bystanders for such diffusion to take place [25].”
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“…– in the literature on distant suffering (Chouliaraki 2006, 2013; Höijer 2004; Seu 2015), in framing research from communication and social movement studies (e.g. Snow, Vliegenthart, and Ketelaars 2019), and from research on bystander interventions (for overview, Dovidio 2007; Fischer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundModeling Human Helpfulness with Individual and Contextual Factors for Robot Planning
Nanavati, A., Mavrogiannis, C., Weatherwax, K., Takayama, L. A., Çakmak, M., & Srinivasa, S. S. (2021) · Robotics: Science and Systems · doi:10.15607/rss.2021.xvii.016 · Cited by 10
“adding more hUID, b, and ρask values—although that scenario may require extending the model for the bystander effect [19].”
BackgroundWhen Are Groups Less Moral Than Individuals?
Campos‐Mercade, P. (2020) · Games and Economic Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.geb.2022.03.009 · Cited by 10
Misgav, K., Shachnai, R., Abramson, L., Knafo‐Noam, A., & Daniel, E. (2022) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12773 · Cited by 12
“…on the “bystander effect”, possibly the best- known research on spontaneous helping behavior in social psychology (Darley & Latané, 1968; Latané & Rodin, 1969), researchers rank “noticing a critical situation” as the first condition for helping (Fischer et al., 2011; Latané & Darley, 1970).”
BackgroundD’Antonio, J. (2013) · International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing · doi:10.1007/s12208-013-0104-x · Cited by 10
“After the pretest, priming techniques were used in a manner similar to the techniques used by Garcia et al. (2002) where participants were instructed to visualize themselves as being alone in their living room with no one else present while watching the entire video.”
BackgroundMethodWeber, D. M., & Dickter, C. L. (2015) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2015.1060050 · Cited by 10
“This model draws from research on bystander intervention in emergency situations (Fischer et al., 2011; Latané & Darley, 1970), and Confronting Heterosexist Comments 1291”
MethodAppeal to Bystander Interventions: A Normative Approach to Health and Risk Messaging
Burn, S. M. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.242 · Cited by 15
A counterfactual simulation model of causation by omissionPreprint
Gerstenberg, T., & Stephan, S. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wmh4c · Cited by 16
“For example, in bystander situations we hold people morally responsible for not acting when they should have (Darley & Latané, 1968; Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundTheoretical models and neural mechanisms of prosocial risky behavior
Zhan, Y., Liu, C., Xiao, X., Tan, Q., & Fu, X. (2022) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/tb-2022-0699 · Cited by 10
Salmon, D., Chua, J., Brown, J. C., et al. (2023) · BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2023-001722 · Cited by 9
Let me, or let George? Motives of competing altruists
Bergstrom, T. C., Garratt, R. J., & Leo, G. (2019) · Games and Economic Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.geb.2019.09.002 · Cited by 9
“[21] show that in almost all of these studies, individual subjects are less likely to help if more than one potential helper is available.”
Bierhoff, H., & Rohmann, E. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-06110-4_46 · Cited by 9
Variations in involvement: motivating bystanders to care for senior citizens
Keller, S., & Wilkinson, T. (2017) · International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Marketing · doi:10.1108/ijphm-06-2016-0029 · Cited by 9
Different actions for different crimes: Explaining individual action in local crime problems
Schaefer, L., MAZEROLLE, L. G., & Kapnoulla, M. (2017) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.21902 · Cited by 9
Factors leading to cyber victimization
Macaulay, P. J. R., Steer, O. L., & Betts, L. R. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816203-3.00001-0 · Cited by 9
The Role of Bystanders in the Prevention of Railway Suicides in New South Wales, Australia
Ngo, N. V., Gregor, S. D., Beavan, G., & Riley, B. (2021) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000804 · Cited by 9
“This finding is congruent with other work showing that by-standers were more likely to help in situations where there was low ambiguity about the risk of danger (e.g., Fischer et al., 2011).”
Butler, L. C., Graham, A., Fisher, B. S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211055088 · Cited by 9
Lin, L., & Shek, D. T. L. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111400 · Cited by 11
Cowan, R. G., Tedeschi, P. J., Corbin, M., & Cole, R. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22647 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., Heene, M., Wicher, M., & Kainbacher, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- Brown University (US)
- Universität Innsbruck (AT)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- University of Graz (AT)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 137
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 517-537
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2107050526
- Semantic Scholar
- 43e957f87e561c4d2d65715e6fe94e872b34299e
- Cited by
- 983
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 86 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 88.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- German Science Foundation(DFG) (FI 938/2-1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- bystander effect, bystander intervention, helping behavior, perceived danger, physical support, confederates
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Arousal, Emergencies, Fear, Female, Helping Behavior, Humans, Male, Social Control, Informal, Social Identification, Violence, Bias, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Crime Victims
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