Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: A longitudinal study.
Open accessAbstract
We examined the development of self-esteem in adolescence and young adulthood. Data came from the Young Adults section of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which includes 8 assessments across a 14-year period of a national probability sample of 7,100 individuals age 14 to 30 years. Latent growth curve analyses indicated that self-esteem increases during adolescence and continues to increase more slowly in young adulthood. Women and men did not differ in their self-esteem trajectories. In adolescence, Hispanics had lower self-esteem than Blacks and Whites, but the self-esteem of Hispanics subsequently increased more strongly, so that at age 30 Blacks and Hispanics had higher self-esteem than Whites. At each age, emotionally stable, extraverted, and conscientious individuals experienced higher self-esteem than emotionally unstable, introverted, and less conscientious individuals. Moreover, at each age, high sense of mastery, low risk taking, and better health predicted higher self-esteem. Finally, the results suggest that normative increase in sense of mastery accounts for a large proportion of the normative increase in self-esteem.
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Prior studies have shown positive effects of ACT on increasing self-esteem in adolescents with stuttering, reducing depression in women after first delivery, and promoting adolescent mental health.
“Studies show the positive effect of ACT on increasing self-esteem in adolescents with stuttering [16], reducing depression in women after experiencing their first delivery [17], and promoting adolescent mental health [18].”
From The Effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Group Therapy on the Self-esteem of Girls With Visual Impairment. (2022) · cites this paper as [16]
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“…regard to global self-esteem, cohort-sequential longitudinal studies suggest that the normative trajectory did not significantly change across the generations born in the 20th century (Erol & Orth, 2011; Orth, Robins, & Widaman, 2012; Orth et al., 2010; but see Twenge, Carter, & Campbell, 2017).”
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“In addition, poor self-esteem poses a great challenge; low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poorer mental and physical health and higher levels of criminal activity in young adulthood.(14,15) Also, low self-esteem predicts antisocial behaviors, anxiety, eating disturbances, depression, and suicidal tendencies.”
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Attachment, self-esteem and test anxiety in adolescence and early adulthood
Dan, O., Ilan, O. B., & Kurman, J. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.814191 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“A recent longitudinal study involving participants between the ages of 14–30 showed that the lowest self-esteem was among the 14-year-olds and that self-esteem rapidly increases during adolescence and stabilises in the early twenties (Erol & Orth, 2011).”
BackgroundPersonality development and adjustment in college: A multifaceted, cross-national view.
Klimstra, T. A., Noftle, E. E., Luyckx, K., Goossens, L., & Robins, R. W. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000205 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Jaeken, K., de Llano-Pérula, M. C., Lemiere, J., Verdonck, A., Fieuws, S., & Willems, G. (2018) · European Journal of Orthodontics · doi:10.1093/ejo/cjy035 · Cited by 39
Race, Gender, and the Resources That Matter: An Investigation of Intersectionality and Health
Etherington, C. (2015) · Women & Health · doi:10.1080/03630242.2015.1050544 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Keller, A. C., Meier, L. L., Gross, S., & Semmer, N. K. (2013) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2013.865118 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Rank order stability tends to be curvilinear over the life span, being high for middle adulthood and lower during childhood, adolescence, and old age (Erol & Orth, 2011; Trzesniewski et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMazereel, V., Vansteelandt, K., Menne‐Lothmann, C., Decoster, J., Derom, C. A., Thiery, E. W., Rutten, B. P. F., Jacobs, N., van Os, J., Wichers, M., et al. (2021) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2021.100413 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Especially in adolescence, self-esteem is still unstable and contingent on self-relevant events (Erol & Orth, 2011; Meier et al., 2011).”
Alessandri, G., Filosa, L., Tisak, M. S., Crocetti, E., Crea, G., & Avanzi, L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02102 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Lindwall, M., Aşçı, H., & Crocker, P. (2014) · Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology (JSEP) · doi:10.1123/jsep.2013-0258 · Cited by 38
Kuzucu, Y., Bontempo, D. E., Hofer, S. M., Stallings, M. C., & Piccinin, A. M. (2013) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431613507498 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Some longitudinal studies of self-concept have found a gradual increase in self-concept during middle and late adolescence (Birkeland, Melkevik, Holsen, & Wold, 2012; Cairns, McWhirter, Duffy, & Barry, 1990; Erol & Orth, 2011; Moneta, Schneider, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001).”
BackgroundPark, K., & Yang, T. (2017) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1080/00380253.2017.1331718 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self‐esteem change during the transition from university to work
Reitz, A. K., Shrout, P. E., Denissen, J. J. A., Dufner, M., & Bolger, N. (2020) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12519 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Research on normative rank‐order stability in young adulthood has reported moderate to high stability (Donnellan, Kenny, Trzesniewski, Lucas, & Conger, 2012; Erol & Orth, 2011; Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Robins, 2003).”
BackgroundEspinosa, A. (2020) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00917-1 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-Competence and Depressive Symptom Trajectories during Adolescence
Vannucci, A., & Ohannessian, C. M. (2017) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0340-3 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Białecka-Pikul, M., Stępień-Nycz, M., Sikorska, I., Topolewska-Siedzik, E., & Cieciuch, J. (2019) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-019-01041-y · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Still Doing Fine? the Interplay of Negative Life Events and Self–Esteem during Young Adulthood
Tetzner, J., Becker, M., & Baumert, J. (2016) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2066 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…(Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001; Trzesniewski et al., 2003) but then recovers and increases until middle adulthood (Chung et al., 2014; Erol & Orth, 2011; Hutteman, Nestler, Wagner, Egloff, & Back, 2015; Meier, Orth, Denissen, & Kühnel, 2011; Orth, Trzesniewski, & Robins, 2010; Wagner…”
BackgroundSelf-esteem growth trajectory from adolescence to mid-adulthood and its predictors in adolescence
Kiviruusu, O. H., Huurre, T. M., Aro, H. M., MARTTUNEN, M. J., & Haukkala, A. (2014) · Advances in Life Course Research · doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2014.12.003 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Watson, J. C. (2017) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.5330/1096-2409-21.1.108 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“According to Erol and Orth (2011), self-esteem is more variable and less stable during early adolescence (the middle school years) than late adolescence or young adulthood.”
BackgroundLundberg, T., Forinder, U., Olsson, M., Fürst, C. J., Årestedt, K., & Alvariza, A. (2018) · European Journal of Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2018.05.004 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Luyckx, K., Rassart, J., Aujoulat, I., Goubert, L., & Weets, I. (2016) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105314531467 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Longitudinal data confirmed that self-esteem increases through adolescence and the transition to adulthood (Erol and Orth, 2011).”
BackgroundMoksnes, U., & Lazarewicz, M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.049 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Personality and self-esteem in emerging adults with Type 1 diabetes
Rassart, J., Luyckx, K., Moons, P., & Weets, I. (2013) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.11.015 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Gao, W., & Liu, X. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09723 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, other studies found that self-esteem levels rise during adolescence and keep going up at a slower pace during young adulthood (Erol and Orth, 2011).”
Self-Expressive Creativity in the Adolescent Digital Domain: Personality, Self-Esteem, and Emotions
Pérez-Fuentes, M. D. C., Jurado, M. D. M. M., Linares, J. J. G., Ruiz, N. F. O., Márquez, M. D. M. S., & Saracostti, M. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16224527 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“A growing number of studies have explored the relationship between personality and self-esteem from the Big Five Factor Theory [35].”
BackgroundOtterpohl, N., Lazar, R., & Stiensmeier-Pelster, J. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.11.002 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Test-anxious persons often report procrastination in test preparation, difficulties in concentration, sleeping problems, and somatic complaints (Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Fehm & Fydrich, 2011; Hank, Pohl, & Krampen, 2009).”
BackgroundJealousy in adolescents' daily lives: How does it relate to interpersonal context and well‐being?
Lennarz, H. K., Lichtwarck‐Aschoff, A., Finkenauer, C., & Granic, I. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.09.008 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Rising High or Falling Deep? Pathways of Self–Esteem in a Representative German Sample
Mund, M., & Neyer, F. J. (2016) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2063 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…shown that self-esteem increases throughout adulthood, peaks between age 50 and 60, and begins to decrease thereafter (Chung et al., 2014; Erol & Orth, 2011; Orth, Maes, & Schmitt, 2015; Orth, Robins, & Widaman, 2012; Orth, Trzesniewski, & Robins, 2010; Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, &…”
Bulat, L. R., Sušac, N., & Ajduković, M. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04404-8 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Introversion could be connected to low self-esteem (Erol & Orth, 2011), which differentiates those who continue NSSI or SI from those who cease.”
Background
- Authors
- Erol, R. Y., & Orth, U.
- Affiliations
- University of Basel (CH)
- ORCID
- Orth, Ulrich
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2011-09
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 607-619
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2120866231
- Cited by
- 474
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 41 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 36 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 27.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Bern Open Repository and Information System (University of Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
- Funders
- Swiss National Science Foundation (PP00P1-123370)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- self-esteem development, adolescence, early adulthood, gender differences, racial and ethnic differences, Latino youth, emotional stability, extraversion, conscientiousness, sense of mastery, risk-taking, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Conscience, Ethnicity, Extraversion, Psychological, Female, Health Status, Humans, Human Development, Internal-External Control, Introversion, Psychological, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Personality, Risk-Taking, Self Concept, Socioeconomic Factors, Age Distribution, Sex Distribution, Young Adult
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