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Racial/ethnic matching of clients and therapists in mental health services: A meta-analytic review of preferences, perceptions, and outcomes.

Cabral, Raquel R., Smith, Timothy B.·2011·Journal of Counseling Psychology

DOI 10.1037/a0025266

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Abstract

Across several decades the effects of matching clients with therapists of the same race/ethnicity have been explored using a variety of approaches. We conducted a meta-analysis of 3 variables frequently used in research on racial/ethnic matching: individuals' preferences for a therapist of their own race/ethnicity, clients' perceptions of therapists across racial/ethnic match, and therapeutic outcomes across racial/ethnic match. Across 52 studies of preferences, the average effect size (Cohen's d) was 0.63, indicating a moderately strong preference for a therapist of one's own race/ethnicity. Across 81 studies of individuals' perceptions of therapists, the average effect size was 0.32, indicating a tendency to perceive therapists of one's own race/ethnicity somewhat more positively than other therapists. Across 53 studies of client outcomes in mental health treatment, the average effect size was 0.09, indicating almost no benefit to treatment outcomes from racial/ethnic matching of clients with therapists. These 3 averaged effect sizes were characterized by substantial heterogeneity: The effects of racial/ethnic matching are highly variable. Studies involving African American participants demonstrated the highest effect sizes across all 3 types of evaluations: preferences, perceptions, and outcomes.

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Ewing, S. W. F., Wray, A. M., Mead, H. K., & Adams, S. K. (2012) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2011.12.005 · Cited by 41
“…and providers across a number of variables (including ethnicity) did not directly influence treatment outcomes (for better or for worse, e.g., Cabral & Smith, 2011; Suarez-Morales et al., 2010), other adolescent and adult studies have found improved outcomes with matched ethnicity (e.g.,…”
Background
Client preferences for the personality characteristics of an ideal therapist
Russell, K. A., Swift, J. K., Penix, E. A., & Whipple, J. L. (2020) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2020.1733492 · Cited by 40
“While some research has examined clients’ therapist preferences, most have focused on therapist demographic characteristics (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity; Cabral & Smith, 2011; Speight & Vera, 2005; Stamler, Christensen, Staley, & Macagno-Shang, 1999).”
Background
Diversity and Inclusion in Psychiatry: The Pursuit of Health Equity
Moreno, F., & Chhatwal, J. (2020) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20190029 · Cited by 40
Introduction to the Special Issue: Advancing Racial Justice in Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology
Hurd, N. M., & Young, A. S. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2023.2202255 · Cited by 39
“Receiving treatment from racially and/or ethnically matched providers also may reduce clients’ mistrust in providers, reduce provider bias, and improve the overall quality of care racially and ethnically marginalized families receive (Cabral & Smith, 2011; Chapman et al., 2013).”
Background
Under What Conditions Does Caseworker-Caregiver Racial/Ethnic Similarity Matter for Housing Service Provision? An Application of Representative Bureaucracy Theory
McBeath, B., Chuang, E., Bunger, A. C., & Blakeslee, J. E. (2014) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/675373 · Cited by 38
“…delivery more positively when a racial/ethnic match is present; however, their health and behavioral health treatment outcomes are often no better than those of clients not served by culturally concordant practitioners ðChinman, Rosenheck, and Lam 2000; Karlsson 2005; Cabral and Smith 2011Þ.”
Background
A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health
(2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289 · Cited by 43
A Context‐Informed Perspective of Child Risk and Protection: Deconstructing Myths in the Risk Discourse
Nadan, Y., & Roer‐Strier, D. (2020) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12393 · Cited by 39
Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the US Psychiatric Workforce: A Perspective and Recommendations
Lokko, H. N., Chen, J. A., Parekh, R., & Stern, T. A. (2016) · Academic Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40596-016-0591-2 · Cited by 37
“Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders prefer to have psychotherapists of the same race and ethnicity [16].”
Background
The effects of client–counselor racial matching on therapeutic outcome
Kim, E., & Kang, M. (2018) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-018-9518-9 · Cited by 37
“As Sue (1998) and Cabral and Smith (2011) pointed out, ethnic/ racial matching does act as a key factor for certain clients.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Cumulative stigma among injured immigrant workers: a qualitative exploratory study in Montreal (Quebec, Canada)
Côté, D., Dubé, J., Gravel, S., Gratton, D., & White, B. W. (2020) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2018.1517281 · Cited by 32
“Despite the apparent linguistic and cultural proximity, the practitioner has his or her own worldview and professional framework that derives from an institutional logic that may or may not be shared or understood by the client [64].”
Background
Training and support for caregivers of people with dementia: The process of culturally adapting the World Health Organization iSupport programme to Portugal
Teles, S., Sosa‐Napolskij, M., Paúl, C., Ferreira, A., & Seeher, K. M. (2020) · Dementia · doi:10.1177/1471301220910333 · Cited by 39
“…vs. non-adapted interventions on clinical outcomes, the evidence from several systematic reviews and meta-analysis is mixed (Benish et al., 2011; Cabral & Smith, 2011; Chowdhary et al., 2014; Cuijpers et al., 2008; Griner & Smith, 2006; Hall et al., 2016; Hodge et al., 2010; Huey & Polo, 2008;…”
Background
Online training and support program (iSupport) for informal dementia caregivers: protocol for an intervention study in Portugal
Teles, S., Ferreira, A., Seeher, K. M., Fréel, S., & Paúl, C. (2020) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-019-1364-z · Cited by 36
I-sharing on the couch: on the clinical implications of shared subjective experience.
Pinel, E. C., Bernecker, S. L., & Rampy, N. M. (2015) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/a0038895 · Cited by 35
“Individuals, especially those from minority groups, prefer therapists of the same race/ethnicity (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effectiveness of a dissonance-based eating disorder prevention program for ethnic groups in two randomized controlled trials
Stice, E. M., Marti, C. N., & Cheng, Z. H. (2014) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.02.002 · Cited by 39
“However, meta-analytic reviews have found minimal effects of ethnic matching on premature termination of clients, number of sessions attended, functioning at termination, or treatment effects (Cabral & Smith, 2011; Maramba & Hall, 2002; Shin et al., 2005).”
Background
Barriers and Facilitators to Latinx College Students Seeking Counseling
Menendez, J., Franco, M. G., Davari, J., Gnilka, P. B., & Ashby, J. S. (2019) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/87568225.2019.1600093 · Cited by 37
Asian American mental health during COVID-19: A call for task-sharing interventions
Kormendi, N. M., & Brown, A. D. (2021) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2021.100006 · Cited by 38
“Invincible Black Women”: Group Therapy for Black College Women
Jones, M. K., & Pritchett-Johnson, B. (2018) · The Journal for Specialists in Group Work · doi:10.1080/01933922.2018.1484536 · Cited by 32
“Literature suggests a strong preference for culturally similar counselors among Blacks (Cabral & Smith, 2011), especially for students with high racial consciousness (Duncan & Johnson, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
How Important Is a Guide Who Has Taken Psilocybin in Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy for Depression?
Earleywine, M., Low, F., Altman, B. R., & Leo, J. A. D. (2022) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2022.2047842 · Cited by 32
A Qualitative Study of the Perceptions of Mental Health Care in Kuwait
Scull, N. C., Khullar, N., Al-Awadhi, N., & Erheim, R. (2014) · International Perspectives in Psychology · doi:10.1037/ipp0000023 · Cited by 32
“Consistent with research indicating that the therapist’s ethnic match with a client is unrelated to clinical outcomes (Cabral & Smith, 2011), participants typically noted that there was benefit to seeing a foreign-born therapist.”
Counselor happiness: Effects of therapy work with similar trauma
Chaverri, J., Praetorius, R. T., & Ruiz, E. (2017) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15332985.2017.1419535 · Cited by 31
“Research has shown that outcomes in therapy do not change substantially if clients are matched with a therapist of the same race/ gender (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
Background
Culturally Sensitive Intervention for Latina Women with Eating Disorders: A Case Study
Reyes‐Rodríguez, M. L., Baucom, D. H., & Bulik, C. M. (2014) · Revista Mexicana de Trastornos Alimentarios/Mexican Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1016/s2007-1523(14)72009-9 · Cited by 31
“The therapist’s alignment with the client’s world view, such as therapist multicultural competence, is a key factor in treatment outcomes (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
The Importance of Therapist/Client Ethnic/Racial Matching in Couples Treatment for Domestic Violence
Horst, K., Mendez, M., Culver‐Turner, R. E., Amanor‐Boadu, Y., Minner, B., Cook, J. W., Stith, S. M., & McCollum, E. E. (2012) · Contemporary Family Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10591-012-9174-x · Cited by 31
“Outcome research indicates a relative degree of variability regarding the effectiveness of client and therapist ethnic/racial matching (see Cabral and Smith 2011, Shin et al. 2005).”
Background
Across US Hospitals, Black Patients Report Comparable Or Better Experiences Than White Patients
Figueroa, J. F., Zheng, J., Orav, E. J., & Jha, A. K. (2016) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1426 · Cited by 31
Community providers’ experiences with evidence-based practices: The role of therapist race/ethnicity.
Ramos, G., Brookman-Frazee, L., Kodish, T., Rodriguez, A., & Lau, A. S. (2021) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000357 · Cited by 30
“Third, therapist– client racial/ethnic matching needs to be further examined, given the mixed findings in this area (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
Background
The effects of cultural humility on therapeutic alliance and psychotherapy outcomes: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Orlowski, E. W., Moeyaert, M., Monley, C. M., & Redden, C. L. (2024) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12835 · Cited by 38
Social Identities of Clients and Therapists During the Mental Health Intake Predict Diagnostic Accuracy
Nakash, O., & Saguy, T. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550615576003 · Cited by 29
“Research on this ‘‘matching’’ hypothesis in the contexts of mental health care has focused on clients’ related outcomes (e.g., service utilization; Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
Background
The impact of socioeconomic status on mental health and health-seeking behavior across race and ethnicity in a large multiple sclerosis cohort
Maldonado, D. P., Eusebio, J. R., Amezcua, L., Vasileiou, E. S., Mowry, E. M., Hemond, C. C., Umeton, R. P., Morales, I. B., Radu, I., Ionete, C., et al. (2021) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2021.103451 · Cited by 27
Race, racial matching, and cultural understanding as predictors of treatment engagement in youth mental health services
Chu, W., Chorpita, B. F., & Becker, K. D. (2022) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2022.2150582 · Cited by 29
Mental health service use among young adults: A communication framework for program development
Munson, M. R., & Jaccard, J. (2018) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-016-0765-y · Cited by 28
“In a recent meta-analytic review, Cabral and Smith (2011) found client preferences for a clinician of the same race, but, interestingly, reported only weak effects when examining outcome 1 3 A fourth message consideration is the complexity of the message.”
Background
Implementing Group CBT for Depression Among Latinos in a Primary Care Clinic
Aguilera, A., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., Liu, N., & Bravin, J. I. (2017) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2017.03.002 · Cited by 31
“This is in line with evidence from literature on client-therapist ethnic match, which shows that patients tend to have a strong preference for therapists of their own ethnic/racial background (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
Result
“They're causing more harm than good”: a qualitative study exploring racism in harm reduction through the experiences of racialized people who use drugs
Godkhindi, P., Nussey, L., & O’Shea, T. M. (2022) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-022-00672-y · Cited by 33
Race of Interviewer Effect on Disclosures of Suicidal Low-Income African American Women
Samples, T. C., Woods, A. M., Davis, T. A., Rhodes, M. N., Shahane, A., & Kaslow, N. J. (2012) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798412469228 · Cited by 27
“…given evidence that people tend to prefer therapists of their own race/ethnicity and perceive such therapists somewhat more positively than they view therapists from a different cultural background, despite a lack of between-group differences with regard to treatment outcome (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
Background
Multicultural Counseling Competence Training: Adding Value With Multicultural Consultation
Jones, J. M., Begay, K. K., Nakagawa, Y., Cevasco, M., & Sit, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2015.1012671 · Cited by 27
“In a meta-analysis of 52 studies of ethnic congruence in counseling, they found a moderately strong preference (Cohen’s d = .63) for a same race/ethnicity clinician (Cabral & Smith, 2011).”
Background

Authors: Cabral, R. R., & Smith, T. B.
Affiliations: Brigham Young University (US)
ORCID: Smith, Timothy B.
Venue: Journal of Counseling Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2011
Volume: 58
Issue: 4
Pages: 537-554
ISSN: 0022-0167 (ISSN-L)
1939-2168
DOI: 10.1037/a0025266
OpenAlex: W2082304096
Cited by: 651
References: 228
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 83 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 43 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 21.35
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Counseling Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Keywords: therapist preferences, client perceptions of therapists, treatment outcomes, mental health services, African American clients
MeSH terms: Mental Disorders, Ethnicity, Health Personnel, Humans, Mental Health Services, Professional-Patient Relations, Psychotherapy, Treatment Outcome, Patient Satisfaction, Racial Groups, Cultural Competency

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Racial/ethnic matching of clients and therapists in mental health services: A meta-analytic review of preferences, perceptions, and outcomes.

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