Cited by 464Emotions and Moral BehaviorSocial and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and Psychology

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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

Else-Quest, Nicole M., Higgins, Ashley, Allison, Carlie, Morton, Lindsay C.·2012·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

The self-conscious emotions (SCE) of guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment are moral emotions, which motivate adherence to social norms and personal standards and emerge in early childhood following the development of self-awareness. Gender stereotypes of emotion maintain that women experience more guilt, shame, and embarrassment but that men experience more pride. To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in SCE experience and to determine the circumstances under which these gender differences vary, we meta-analyzed 697 effect sizes representing 236,304 individual ratings of SCE states and traits from 382 journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sets. Guilt (d = -0.27) and shame (d = -0.29) displayed small gender differences, whereas embarrassment (d = -0.08), authentic pride (d = -0.01), and hubristic pride (d = 0.09) showed gender similarities. Similar to previous findings of ethnic variations in gender differences in other psychological variables, gender differences in shame and guilt were significant only for White samples or samples with unspecified ethnicity. We found larger gender gaps in shame with trait (vs. state) scales, and in guilt and shame with situation- and scenario-based (vs. adjective- and statement-based) items, consistent with predictions that such scales and items tend to tap into global, nonspecific assessments of the self and thus reflect self-stereotyping and gender role assimilative effects. Gender differences in SCE about domains such as the body, sex, and food or eating tended to be larger than gender differences in SCE about other domains. These findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that blanket stereotypes about women's greater emotionality are inaccurate.

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BackgroundInfluential
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“In the investigated age range the effect of parental gender role socialization and childrens’ emerging gender ster eotyping may amplify small or negligible gender differences in emotion expression of shame and pride (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
BackgroundResult
Diferencias de género en la sensibilidad emocional por covid-19 en estudiantes universitarios
la Cruz-Caballero, A. M. D., Robles-Francia, V. H., & Robles-Ramos, V. A. (2021) · RIDE Revista Iberoamericana para la Investigación y el Desarrollo Educativo · doi:10.23913/ride.v11i22.903 · Cited by 2
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Fergusson, A. S., Hopkins, S. W., Stark, A. M., Tousignant, O. H., & Fireman, G. D. (2020) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2020.1778624 · Cited by 3
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Rahmati, A., Poormirzaei, M., & Bagheri, M. (2019) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2019.3589 · Cited by 2
Does the way we measure shame create a gender difference?
Herring, E. (2018) · Assessment and Development Matters · doi:10.53841/bpsadm.2018.10.1.2 · Cited by 2
“Else-Quest et al. (2012) suggested that the gender difference in shame could be caused by innate sex differences, but did not specify what this innate difference may be.”
BackgroundMethod
Are Women More Likely than Men Are to Care Excessively about Maintaining Positive Social Relationships? A Meta-Analytic Review of the Gender Difference in Sociotropy
Yang, K., & Girgus, J. S. (2018) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0980-y · Cited by 75
“…size that is similar to those of prior meta-analyses that demonstrated gender differences in psychological variables such as anxiety, self-esteem, cooperation in mixed-gender interactions, guilt, and shame (Balliet et al. 2011; Else-Quest et al. 2012; Feingold 1994; Hyde 2005; Kling et al. 1999).”
Result
Bound to Feel Bad About Oneself: Relations Between Attachment and the Self-conscious Emotions of Guilt and Shame in Children and Adolescents
Muris, P., Meesters, C. M. G., Cima, M., Verhagen, M., Brochard, N., Sanders, A. J. M. L., Kempener, C., Beurskens, J., & Meesters, V. (2013) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9817-z · Cited by 39
“To compare levels of self-conscious emotions across the three attachment style groups, analyses of variance were conducted in which gender was included as a covariate (ANCOVAs), because girls generally display somewhat higher levels of self-conscious emotions as compared to boys (Else-Quest et al. 2012).”
Method
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“These findings are generally consistent with broader psychological literature reporting gender differences in emotional expressiveness, emotional responsiveness, and emotion regulation tendencies (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
Autistic traits and proneness to shame and guilt: The mediating role of functional connectivity of cortical midline structures
Ip, I. N., Chiu, H. T., Ching, F. N. Y., Law, C.-K., Tang, E. H. L., Ng, C. S. F., & Wong, S. W. H. (2026) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2025.10004 · Cited by 1
“Negative self-conscious emotions: shame and guilt Shame and guilt are moral emotions that serve to motivate us to act in accordance with social norms and personal standards (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
The age of virtue signaling: Moral grandstanding as competitive display among young men
Jungkunz, S. (2026) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70132 · Cited by 1
“Conversely, women's socialization often emphasizes relational harmony, communal values, and empathic concern (Eagly & Wood, 2012; Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
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Alamaa, C., & Dominici, A. (2026) · Italian Economic Journal · doi:10.1007/s40797-026-00365-6 · Cited by 1
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Associations between self-conscious emotions and sociodemographic factors, lifestyle, burden of disease, and healthcare interventions: A cross-sectional study with people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
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Who’s watching matters: How audience familiarity shapes children’s self-drawings of pride
Brechet, C., Arnal, F., Deville, O., Filali, R., Mara, J., & Paganon, J. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254251388221 · Cited by 1
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Wealth shocks and self-reported health: evidence from the quasi natural experiment of housing system reform in China
Zhang, R., Peng, P., Su, Y.-M., Lin, Z.-Y., & Feng, D. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05826-4 · Cited by 1
“Additionally, previous research suggests that compared to men, women tend to be more sensitive, experience a greater lack of security, and exhibit higher susceptibility to external shocks (Else-Quest et al. 2012).”
The Chain Mediating Effect of Spousal Support and Dyadic Adjustment in the Association Between Social Media Addiction and Sexual Functioning Among Married Women of Reproductive Age
Bahrami, N., Cholbeigi, E., Miralavi, N., Torabi, F., NasrollahiMola, N., Griffiths, M. D., & Alimoradi, Z. (2025) · Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy · doi:10.1080/0092623x.2025.2531168 · Cited by 2
“This is exacerbated by gender differences in self-conscious emotions (Else-Quest et al., 2012) and social media’s emphasis on appearance-based evaluation (Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019).”
Medical Embarrassment: Effects of Doctor Familiarity and Patient Gender
Wu, J.-S., Pashler, H., & Harris, C. R. (2025) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2025.2537665 · Cited by 1
“However, a meta-analysis did not find such a tendency for embar-rassment (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
When Stigma Meets the Sheets: Sexual Satisfaction, LGB Identity, and Shame Proneness in LGB Individuals—A Quantitative Study
Karcher, S., Gertzen, M., Rosenberger, C., Schwarz, J., Villa, P., Strasburger, M., Rabenstein, A., Pogarell, O. M., Martl, P., Hentschel, H., et al. (2025) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-025-01137-0 · Cited by 1
Interpersonal Shame, Self-Concealment, and Suicidality for Asian American Adults
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“It will be helpful for future research to include gender-related psychosocial factors (e.g., gender role expectations in emotional expression) as they relate to interpersonal shame, self-concealment, and suicidality (Else-Quest et al., 2012; Zimmermann & Iwanski, 2014).”
Italian validation and network analysis of SHAME (SHAME-I) and its associations with perceived dysfunctional parenting
Veneziani, G., Reho, M., Luciani, F., Anaclerico, L., Pileri, J., Campedelli, V., Nardella, C., & Lai, C. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07312-1 · Cited by 1
“For example, meta-analytic work has also revealed that women experience more shame concerning their bodies (Else-Quest et al., 2012) and that, due to socialization, they use shame more frequently to organize the self (Poulson, 2000 ).”
Resting Heart Rate Variability Is Positively Associated With Proneness to Guilt but not Shame in Chinese Young Adults
Ip, I. N., Ching, F., Chiu, H. T., Keung, A. H. Y., & Wong, S. (2024) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000330 · Cited by 1
Gender and moral language on the presidential campaign trail
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Authors: Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C.
Affiliations: University of Maryland, Baltimore County (US)
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine (US)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
ORCID: Else-Quest, Nicole M.
Morton, Lindsay C.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2012-09
Volume: 138
Issue: 5
Pages: 947-981
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/a0027930
OpenAlex: W1999889177
Cited by: 464
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 3
FWCI: 29.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Villanova University
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: self-conscious emotions, gender differences, guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, moral emotions, self-awareness, self-stereotyping, ethnic differences
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Ethnicity, Female, Gender Identity, Guilt, Humans, Male, Men, Middle Aged, Morals, Review Literature as Topic, Self Concept, Sex Characteristics, Shame, Social Conformity, Stereotyping, Women, Models, Statistical, White People, Young Adult

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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

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