Cited by 464Emotions and Moral BehaviorSocial and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and Psychology

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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

Else-Quest, Nicole M., Higgins, Ashley, Allison, Carlie, Morton, Lindsay C.·2012·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

The self-conscious emotions (SCE) of guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment are moral emotions, which motivate adherence to social norms and personal standards and emerge in early childhood following the development of self-awareness. Gender stereotypes of emotion maintain that women experience more guilt, shame, and embarrassment but that men experience more pride. To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in SCE experience and to determine the circumstances under which these gender differences vary, we meta-analyzed 697 effect sizes representing 236,304 individual ratings of SCE states and traits from 382 journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sets. Guilt (d = -0.27) and shame (d = -0.29) displayed small gender differences, whereas embarrassment (d = -0.08), authentic pride (d = -0.01), and hubristic pride (d = 0.09) showed gender similarities. Similar to previous findings of ethnic variations in gender differences in other psychological variables, gender differences in shame and guilt were significant only for White samples or samples with unspecified ethnicity. We found larger gender gaps in shame with trait (vs. state) scales, and in guilt and shame with situation- and scenario-based (vs. adjective- and statement-based) items, consistent with predictions that such scales and items tend to tap into global, nonspecific assessments of the self and thus reflect self-stereotyping and gender role assimilative effects. Gender differences in SCE about domains such as the body, sex, and food or eating tended to be larger than gender differences in SCE about other domains. These findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that blanket stereotypes about women's greater emotionality are inaccurate.

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Background
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“However, distinctively considering these approaches, the role or impact of gender in emotional intelligence has been a pragmatic debate into the studies conducted on emotional intelligence (D'Amico & Geraci, 2022; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Tay et al., 2019).”
Differentiating shame- and guilt-proneness with heart rate variability in Chinese young adultsPreprint
Ip, I. N., Ching, F., Chiu, H. T., Keung, A. H. Y., & Wong, S. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.03.02.530780
“Both shame and guilt are fundamental moral, self-conscious emotions that serve to motivate us to act in accordance with social norms and personal standards (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
Background
Differences in Self-perceiving Emotions: The Role of Gender
Wang, Z. (2023) · Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media · doi:10.54254/2753-7048/2/2022380
“In addition to these idiosyncrasies, men and women experience distinctive emotions under different conditions [4, 5].”
Background
The Role of Gender in Perceiving Emotions: Anger and Sadness
Chen, M. (2023) · Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media · doi:10.54254/2753-7048/2/2022375
“Overall, according to previous research [10], gender differences in self-conscious emotions (SCE) such as guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment existed.”
Result
Psychometric evaluation of the Persian version of Adolescent Shame‐Proneness Scale
Golpayegani, F. H., Hosseinian, S., Rezaeian, H., Pourshahriari, M., & Rasouli, R. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22737
Cultural Models Based on Expression of Emotions
Karandashev, V. N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-58438-2_6 · Cited by 1
The Psychology of Women in Entrepreneurship
Chan, E. T., Tang, P. M., & Chen, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.025
Occupational Health Psychology and Women in Asian Contexts
Siu, O. L., Wang, H., & Pagon, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.027
Gender and Women’s Sexual and Reproductive Health
Hindin, M. J., & OlaOlorun, F. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.040
Work–Family Interface and Crossover Effects
Rajadhyaksha, U. A., & Başkurt, A. B. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.028 · Cited by 1
Career Development of Women
Leung, S. A., & Cinamon, R. G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.024 · Cited by 4
Feminist Theory and Methodologies
Pande, R., Liu, W., & Tseng, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.003 · Cited by 2
Gender and Workplace Affect
Martinez, L. R., Bernard, L., & Snoeyink, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.028 · Cited by 1
Happiness across Cultures and Genders
Kim‐Prieto, C., Heye, M., & Mangino, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.038 · Cited by 1
The Contents and Discontents of the Nature–Nurture Debate
Gangestad, S. W., & Chang, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.004
Understanding Women’s Antisocial and Criminal Behavior
Zhong, H., & Ryder, J. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.034
Sex Differences on the Brain
Grabowska, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.006
Selfhood and Self-Construal
Au, A. K. Y., Chen, S. X., & Cross, S. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.017 · Cited by 2
Three Ways that Aging Affects Women Differently from Men
Chen, A. X., Tsang, V. H. L., Wong, T. K., Fung, H. H.-L., & Ayalon, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.012
Gender and Personality Research in Psychology
Laher, S., Cheung, F. M., & Zeinoun, P. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.016 · Cited by 3
International and Intersectional Perspectives on the Psychology of Women
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.002
Women’s Leadership across Cultures
Reichard, R. J., Trainor, L. L., Jensen, K. L., & Macias‐Alonso, I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.026 · Cited by 1
Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
Byers, E. S., & Blair, K. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.005
Women and Psychotherapy
Duan, C., & Grazioso, M. D. P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.044
Women under Pressure
Eagle, G. T., Ayers, S., Mkone, C., & Moroke, M. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.039
Cognitive and Social Factors
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.013
The Underpinnings of Sex and Gender and How to Study Them
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.001
Parting Thoughts
Halpern, D. F., & Cheung, F. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.046
Some Final Thoughts and Take-Home Messages
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.045
Developmental Perspectives of the International Psychology of Women
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.008
Sexual Assault
Koss, M. P., Hansen, M., Anderson, E. J., Bach, M. H., & Bramsen, R. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.035 · Cited by 5
Inequality and Social Justice
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.031
Intimate Relationships
Mozafari, A. R., & Xu, X. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.029 · Cited by 7

Authors: Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C.
Affiliations: University of Maryland, Baltimore County (US)
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine (US)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
ORCID: Else-Quest, Nicole M.
Morton, Lindsay C.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2012-09
Volume: 138
Issue: 5
Pages: 947-981
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/a0027930
OpenAlex: W1999889177
Cited by: 464
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 3
FWCI: 29.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Villanova University
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: self-conscious emotions, gender differences, guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, moral emotions, self-awareness, self-stereotyping, ethnic differences
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Ethnicity, Female, Gender Identity, Guilt, Humans, Male, Men, Middle Aged, Morals, Review Literature as Topic, Self Concept, Sex Characteristics, Shame, Social Conformity, Stereotyping, Women, Models, Statistical, White People, Young Adult

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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

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