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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.
Abstract
The self-conscious emotions (SCE) of guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment are moral emotions, which motivate adherence to social norms and personal standards and emerge in early childhood following the development of self-awareness. Gender stereotypes of emotion maintain that women experience more guilt, shame, and embarrassment but that men experience more pride. To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in SCE experience and to determine the circumstances under which these gender differences vary, we meta-analyzed 697 effect sizes representing 236,304 individual ratings of SCE states and traits from 382 journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sets. Guilt (d = -0.27) and shame (d = -0.29) displayed small gender differences, whereas embarrassment (d = -0.08), authentic pride (d = -0.01), and hubristic pride (d = 0.09) showed gender similarities. Similar to previous findings of ethnic variations in gender differences in other psychological variables, gender differences in shame and guilt were significant only for White samples or samples with unspecified ethnicity. We found larger gender gaps in shame with trait (vs. state) scales, and in guilt and shame with situation- and scenario-based (vs. adjective- and statement-based) items, consistent with predictions that such scales and items tend to tap into global, nonspecific assessments of the self and thus reflect self-stereotyping and gender role assimilative effects. Gender differences in SCE about domains such as the body, sex, and food or eating tended to be larger than gender differences in SCE about other domains. These findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that blanket stereotypes about women's greater emotionality are inaccurate.
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“For those cases in which there is an overall sex difference such that females score higher on Negative emotions, higher living conditions seem to predict that they express and feel even more negative emotions (e.g., guilt and crying) compared with men (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Fischer et al., 2004; Maes et al., 2019; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2012
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“Although research has shown that gender differences in the experience of self-conscious emotions are generally small (i.e., women/girls report somewhat higher levels of guilt and shame than men/boys, while no gender differences are observed for authentic and hubristic pride; Else-Quest et al. 2012), it seems to be the…”
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“And, Else-Quest et al. (2012) found women and men to differ more in trait shame than in state shame.”
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“…later result might be less related to actual experiences of shame linked to loneliness and more to the phenomenon that men are less likely to express shame than women, stemming from differences in the extent to which men and women are socialized to feel or express shame (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
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“Gender was of particular importance because it is related to trait experience of self-conscious emotions (Else-Quest et al., 2012) and creative performance (Vessey et al.”
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“Three studies in the old analyses (Fischer et al., 2004; McDuff et al., 2017; van Hemert et al., 2011) and four studies in the new analyses (Archer, 2004; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2012; Maes et al., 2019) investigated Negative emotions.”
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“…have been conducted in relation to a myriad of variables, ranging from driving (e.g., Zhang et al. 2011) to the experience of emotions (e.g., Else-Quest et al. 2012) and political preferences (e.g., Condon and Wichowsky 2015; for general overviews on gender differences see Hyde 2014, and…”
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“, 2007) and emotions such as guilt and shame (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
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“Because women have higher relational concerns than men, they may feel more encouraged and uplifted (Else-Quest et al. 2012; Grossman and Wood 1993) and access more identityrelevant thoughts (Vallacher and Wegner 1987) associated with giving (Cantor, Acker, and Cook-Flannagan 1992; Gabriel and Gardner 1999; Mercadillo…”
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Transforming Straight Guilt Into Collective Action for LGBs via Close Cross-Group Friendships
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“Women are more likely to experience guilt than men (for meta-analysis, see Else-Quest et al., 2012; Rangganadhan & Todorov, 2010).”
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Kumpulainen, V., Merisaari, H., Silver, E. A., Copeland, A., Pulli, E. P., Lewis, J. D., Saukko, E., Shulist, S. J., Saunavaara, J. P., Parkkola, R. K., et al. (2023) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26238 · Cited by 23
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A meta‐analysis of the association between shame and dissociation
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Shame in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizure: A narrative review
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Are many sex/gender differences really power differences?
Galinsky, A. D., Turek, A., Agarwal, G., Anicich, E. M., Rucker, D. D., Bowles, H. R., Liberman, N., Levin, C., & Magee, J. C. (2024) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae025 · Cited by 27
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“and positively with general and athlete-specific psychological distress, with higher observed guilt- and shame-proneness female athletes as per existing literature (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
BackgroundResultBebanic, V., Clench‐Aas, J., Raanaas, R. K., & Nes, R. B. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515591978 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, Baltimore County (US)
- Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2012-09
- Volume
- 138
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 947-981
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1999889177
- Cited by
- 464
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 29.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Villanova University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- self-conscious emotions, gender differences, guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, moral emotions, self-awareness, self-stereotyping, ethnic differences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Ethnicity, Female, Gender Identity, Guilt, Humans, Male, Men, Middle Aged, Morals, Review Literature as Topic, Self Concept, Sex Characteristics, Shame, Social Conformity, Stereotyping, Women, Models, Statistical, White People, Young Adult
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