Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.
Abstract
The authors used meta-analytical techniques to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mean level and variability of 35 dimensions and 3 factors of temperament in children ages 3 months to 13 years. Effortful control showed a large difference favoring girls and the dimensions within that factor (e.g., inhibitory control: d = -.41, perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38) showed moderate gender differences favoring girls, consistent with boys' greater incidence of externalizing disorders. Surgency showed a difference favoring boys, as did some of the dimensions within that factor (e.g., activity: d = 0.33, high-intensity pleasure: d = 0.30), consistent with boys' greater involvement in active rough-and-tumble play. Negative affectivity showed negligible gender differences.
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There is no gender difference in negative affectivity during infancy and childhood.
“Given no gender difference in negative affectivity in infancy and childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006), for temperament to account for the emergence of the gender difference in depression in adolescence requires an interaction between vulnerable temperament and some other factor, such as stress, with stress increasing dramatically in adolescence and increasing more for females than males.”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Men procrastinate slightly more than women, with a weak negative correlation between female gender and procrastination (r = -.08).
“Findings suggest a small influence of gender, whereby men procrastinate slightly more than women do, revealing a weak negative correlation between the female gender and procrastination (r = -.08),possibly related to greater selfcontrol among women in general (van Eerde, 2003;Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & van Hulle, 2006).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on agreeableness (SMD = 0.56).
“females scored higher on agreeableness (SMD = 0.56)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on forgiveness (SMD = 0.28).
“forgiveness (SMD = 0.28)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on neuroticism (SMD = 0.41).
“neuroticism (SMD = 0.41)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on altruism (SMD = 0.11).
“altruism (SMD = 0.11)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on morningness (SMD = 0.08).
“morningness (SMD = 0.08)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on effortful control (SMD = 0.12).
“effortful control (SMD = 0.12)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on extraversion (SMD = 0.15).
“extraversion (SMD = 0.15)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Males were higher than females on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13).
“Males, on the other hand, were higher on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on positive reciprocity (SMD = 0.06).
“positive reciprocity (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on sociotropy (SMD = 0.34).
“sociotropy (SMD = 0.34”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Males were higher than females on risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17-0.36).
“risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17–SMD = 0.36)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Males were higher than females on general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09).
“general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Males were higher than females on patience (SMD = 0.05).
“patience (SMD = 0.05)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Negative affectivity was the only univariate personality dimension that showed no sex differences.
“Negative affectivity was the only univariate personality dimension that showed no sex differences (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Females scored higher than males on trust (SMD = 0.06).
“trust (SMD = 0.06)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Males were higher than females on narcissism (SMD = 0.27).
“narcissism (SMD = 0.27)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Girls have a stronger ability than boys to regulate their attention and inhibit their impulses.
“The authors concluded that girls have a stronger ability than boys to regulate their attention and inhibit their impulses -skills that certainly serve girls well in the classroom (Blair and Razza, 2007).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
A recent meta-analysis of temperament in childhood and preadolescence reported a large difference between boys' and girls' effortful control (Cohen's d = 1.01).
“A recent meta-analysis of temperament in childhood and preadolescence reported a large difference between boys ' and girls ' effortful control (Cohen ' s d ¼ 1.01; Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
Boys and girls do not differ substantially in their ability to resist temptation or susceptibility to distraction.
“It should be noted, however, that boys and girls do not differ substantially in their ability to resist temptation or susceptibility to distraction (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Silverman, 2003).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2006
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BackgroundParents’ Nonstandard Work Schedules and Child Well-Being: A Critical Review of the Literature
Li, J., Johnson, S. E., Han, W., Andrews, S., Kendall, G. E., Strazdins, L. M., & Dockery, A. M. (2013) · The Journal of Primary Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-013-0318-z · Cited by 204 · see citing works
A socio-relational framework of sex differences in the expression of emotion
Vigil, J. M. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09991075 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“…(e.g., Rudman 2004; see also Forgas 2003), intra-group biases and prejudice (Ekehammar et al. 2003), temperament and personality characteristics (e.g., Cohn 1991; Else-Quest et al. 2006; Feingold 1994), and public policy behaviors (e.g., opinions on judicial philosophy; Gault & Sabini 2000).”
BackgroundGartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Rothbart, M. K., Robertson, C. D., Iddins, E., Ramsay, K., & Schlect, S. D. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018898 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Personality and Psychopathology: A Stagnant Field in Need of Development
Durbin, C. E., & Hicks, B. M. (2014) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1962 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Zhou, Q., Hofer, C., Eisenberg, N., Reiser, M., Spinrad, T. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.369 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“Consistent with the literature on effortful control (Else-Quest et al., 2006) and externalizing (Côté et al.”
BackgroundChildhood personality as a harbinger of competence and resilience in adulthood
Shiner, R. L., & Masten, A. S. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000120 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
von Suchodoletz, A., Gestsdóttir, S., Wanless, S. B., McClelland, M. M., Birgisdóttir, F., Gunzenhauser, C., & Ragnarsdóttir, H. (2012) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.05.003 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Rey, R. D., Lazuras, L., Casas, J. A., Barkoukis, V., Ruiz, R. O., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.021 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Sallquist, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Reiser, M., Hofer, C., Zhou, Q., Liew, J., & Eggum, N. D. (2009) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0013970 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“…1991) and with younger children's emotionality (see Else-Quest et al., 2006), the tentative predictions were that boys would be higher in positive emotional intensity than girls and boys and girls would be similar in their negative emotional intensity (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Murphy et al., 1999).”
InfluentialWinsler, A., Deutsch, A., Vorona, R. D., Payne, P. A., & Szklo-Coxe, M. (2015) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0170-3 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Gender differences in school achievement: The role of self-regulation
Weis, M., Heikamp, T., & Trommsdorff, G. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00442 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Gendered parenting in early childhood: subtle but unmistakable if you know where to look
Mesman, J., & Groeneveld, M. G. (2018) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12250 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“However, sex differences in children’s behavior are absent or small in infancy (21) and emerge slowly in early childhood (1).”
BackgroundGender differences in privacy tendencies on social network sites: A meta-analysis
Tifferet, S. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.046 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Sex differences in Cloninger's temperament dimensions—a meta-analysis
Miettunen, J., Veijola, J. M., Lauronen, E., Kantojärvi, L., & Joukamaa, M. I. (2007) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.10.007 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“Regarding sex differences in personality, there was recently a meta-analysis on children’s temperament [8] and earlier meta-analyses on other models of personality [9,10].”
ResultThe relation of attachment security status to effortful self-regulation: A meta-analysis.
Pallini, S., Chirumbolo, A., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., Laghi, F., & Eisenberg, N. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000134 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
The development of human female competition: allies and adversaries
Benenson, J. F. (2013) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0079 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“From birth, female neonates exhibit fewer negative emotions, less intense activity [80–82] and greater self-regulation [83].”
BackgroundReciprocal Relations Among Self‐Efficacy Beliefs and Prosociality Across Time
Alessandri, G., Caprara, G. V., Eisenberg, N., & Steca, P. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00580.x · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“…of positive interpersonal abilities, such as empathy or prosocial behavior and the modulated expression of positive emotion (Eisenberg et al., 2006; Else-Quest et al., 2006), whereas, consistent with the masculine role, males tended to be high in the ability to manage the expression of negative…”
BackgroundGut microbiota composition is associated with temperament traits in infants
Aatsinki, A.-K., Lahti, L., Uusitupa, H.-M., Munukka, E., Keskitalo, A., Nolvi, S., O'Mahony, S., Pietilä, S., Elo, L. L., Eerola, E., et al. (2019) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2019.05.035 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“However, boys typically show more surgency and its subscales (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Willoughby et al., 2015) as reported by parents and observed in laboratory settings (Gagne et al.”
Kang, Y., Rahrig, H., Eichel, K., Niles, H. F., Rocha, T., Lepp, N. E., Gold, J., & Britton, W. B. (2018) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2018.03.004 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Hosokawa, R., & Katsura, T. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16010021 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
“The model focusing on gender in early intervention programs suggests that permissive discipline may be particularly detrimental for boys, perhaps because boys have less well-developed self-regulation processes than similarly aged girls [92,93].”
BackgroundGender Development Research in Sex Roles: Historical Trends and Future Directions
Zosuls, K. M., Miller, C. F., Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2011) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9902-3 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“Although not an experimental method, the application of meta-analysis to the study of gender differences has once again highlighted the limited nature of differences between the genders and has illuminated the conditions under which gender differences are more or less likely to appear (e.g., Else-Quest et al. 2006; Hy…”
MethodGestsdóttir, S., von Suchodoletz, A., Wanless, S. B., Hubert, B., Guimard, P., Birgisdóttir, F., Gunzenhauser, C., & McClelland, M. M. (2014) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2014.894870 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Sallquist, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., & Gaertner, B. M. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760902819444 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“Researchers also have found that girls are rated higher in certain types of positive emotion compared to boys; however, the difference favoring girls has typically been found with moderated positive affect and not intense positive emotions (Else-Quest et al., 2006).”
BackgroundGender, Emotion, and Socialization
Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (2010) · Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1465-1_21 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Todd, B. K., Fischer, R. A., Costa, S. D., Roestorf, A., Harbour, K., Hardiman, P. J., & Barry, J. A. (2017) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2064 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Bloom, H. S., & Weiland, C. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2594430 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“This might reflect that fact that boys tend to lag behind girls in their socio-emotional development and have different developmental trajectories (Else-Quest et al., 2006; Matthews, Ponitz, and Morrison, 2009).”
BackgroundTemperament and Happiness in Children
Holder, M. D., & Klassen, A. (2009) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9149-2 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“As children develop, the behavioral manifestations of certain traits may change ( Else-Quest et al. 2006 ).”
BackgroundThe relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's sympathy: A longitudinal study
Eisenberg, N., Michalik, N. M., Spinrad, T. L., Hofer, C., Kupfer, A. S., Valiente, C., Liew, J., Cumberland, A. J., & Reiser, M. (2007) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.003 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
McCoy, D. C., Waldman, M. R., & Fink, G. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.05.002 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Meshkat, M., & Nejati, R. (2017) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244017725796 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Muris, P., & Meesters, C. M. G. (2008) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9089-x · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“p<0.001], whereas boys showed higher levels of activity level [t(1,053)=3.96, p<0.001] and high intensity pleasure [t(1,053)=6.41, p<0.001] (cf. Else-Quest et al. 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialThomas, J. C., APrON Study Team, Letourneau, N. L., Campbell, T. S., Tomfohr‐Madsen, L. M., & Giesbrecht, G. F. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000279 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Maternal prenatal stress and infant emotional reactivity six months postpartum
Nolvi, S., Karlsson, L., Bridgett, D. J., Korja, R., Huizink, A. C., Kataja, E., & Karlsson, H. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.04.020 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Kostyrka‐Allchorne, K., Wass, S. V., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13144 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Gaertner, B. M., Spinrad, T. L., & Eisenberg, N. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.580 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“…in life, our findings correspond with reported trends for girls scoring higher than boys on measures of attention during early and middle childhood (Else-Quest et al., 2006), as well as on related measures of self-regulation (Kochanska, Murray, & Coy, 1997; Kochanska, Murray, Jacques, Koenig, &…”
ResultBornstein, M. H. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy405 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Jones, D. J., Lewis, T. H., Litrownik, A. J., Thompson, R., Proctor, L. J., Isbell, P., Dubowitz, H., English, D., Jones, B. L., Nagin, D. S., et al. (2012) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9656-1 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Executive Function Among Preschool Children: Unitary Versus Distinct Abilities
Lerner, M. D., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-014-9424-3 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“In light of evidence from observer ratings of effortful control of attention in general (see Else-Quest et al. 2006, for review) and behavioral measures of IC in particular (Kochanska et al. 1996) that IC may be more developed among girls than boys during preschool, a final multi-sample model…”
Positivity: The Dispositional Basis of Happiness.
Caprara, G. V., Eisenberg, N., & Alessandri, G. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9728-y · Cited by 112 · see citing works
- Authors
- Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2006-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 33-72
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1979582482
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 266
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 61
- FWCI
- 5.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- gender differences, temperament, effortful control, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, surgency, negative affectivity, children, externalizing disorders, rough-and-tumble play, emotional reactivity
- MeSH terms
- Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Personality Development, Psychological Theory, Sex Factors, Temperament
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