Cited by 464Emotions and Moral BehaviorSocial and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and Psychology

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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

Else-Quest, Nicole M., Higgins, Ashley, Allison, Carlie, Morton, Lindsay C.·2012·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

The self-conscious emotions (SCE) of guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment are moral emotions, which motivate adherence to social norms and personal standards and emerge in early childhood following the development of self-awareness. Gender stereotypes of emotion maintain that women experience more guilt, shame, and embarrassment but that men experience more pride. To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in SCE experience and to determine the circumstances under which these gender differences vary, we meta-analyzed 697 effect sizes representing 236,304 individual ratings of SCE states and traits from 382 journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sets. Guilt (d = -0.27) and shame (d = -0.29) displayed small gender differences, whereas embarrassment (d = -0.08), authentic pride (d = -0.01), and hubristic pride (d = 0.09) showed gender similarities. Similar to previous findings of ethnic variations in gender differences in other psychological variables, gender differences in shame and guilt were significant only for White samples or samples with unspecified ethnicity. We found larger gender gaps in shame with trait (vs. state) scales, and in guilt and shame with situation- and scenario-based (vs. adjective- and statement-based) items, consistent with predictions that such scales and items tend to tap into global, nonspecific assessments of the self and thus reflect self-stereotyping and gender role assimilative effects. Gender differences in SCE about domains such as the body, sex, and food or eating tended to be larger than gender differences in SCE about other domains. These findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that blanket stereotypes about women's greater emotionality are inaccurate.

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“The researcher anticipated that gender differences would arise from the data, particularly in the domain of ‘fear of judgement’, considering strong evidence suggests that women tend to experience greater shame than men in the province of eating (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
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“In particular, the differential role of guilt and shame in materialism would be of interest, as guilt is associated with change and positive outcomes and shame tends to be associated with negative outcomes (Else-Quest et al., 2012).”
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“Indeed, ElseQuest and colleagues (Else-Quest et al., 2012) have shown that the differences between men and women are small for guilt and shame and negligible for embarrassment, authentic and hubristic pride.”
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“Regarding shame, the results of the present study are contrary to those of previous ones (Else-Quest et al., 2012 ; Roberts & Goldenberg, 2007 ) since males and females did not present significant differences.”

Authors: Else-Quest, N. M., Higgins, A., Allison, C., & Morton, L. C.
Affiliations: University of Maryland, Baltimore County (US)
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine (US)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
University at Albany, State University of New York (US)
ORCID: Else-Quest, Nicole M.
Morton, Lindsay C.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2012-09
Volume: 138
Issue: 5
Pages: 947-981
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/a0027930
OpenAlex: W1999889177
Cited by: 464
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 3
FWCI: 29.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Villanova University
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: self-conscious emotions, gender differences, guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, moral emotions, self-awareness, self-stereotyping, ethnic differences
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Emotions, Ethnicity, Female, Gender Identity, Guilt, Humans, Male, Men, Middle Aged, Morals, Review Literature as Topic, Self Concept, Sex Characteristics, Shame, Social Conformity, Stereotyping, Women, Models, Statistical, White People, Young Adult

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Gender differences in self-conscious emotional experience: A meta-analysis.

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