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Cited by 3,222Emotions and Moral BehaviorPsychology of Moral and Emotional JudgmentEthics in Business and Education

Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

Open access
Tangney, June Price, Stuewig, Jeff, Mashek, Debra J.·2007·Annual Review of Psychology
DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145PMC PMC3083636
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Abstract

Abstract Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior. This chapter reviews current theory and research on moral emotions. We first focus on a triad of negatively valenced “self-conscious” emotions—shame, guilt, and embarrassment. As in previous decades, much research remains focused on shame and guilt. We review current thinking on the distinction between shame and guilt, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two moral emotions. Several new areas of research are highlighted: research on the domain-specific phenomenon of body shame, styles of coping with shame, psychobiological aspects of shame, the link between childhood abuse and later proneness to shame, and the phenomena of vicarious or “collective” experiences of shame and guilt. In recent years, the concept of moral emotions has been expanded to include several positive emotions—elevation, gratitude, and the sometimes morally relevant experience of pride. Finally, we discuss briefly a morally relevant emotional process—other-oriented empathy.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that moral emotions moderate the link between moral standards and moral behavior, with guilt generally more adaptive and shame more often maladaptive. It synthesizes theory and research on shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride, elevation, gratitude, and other-oriented empathy.

Key findings

  • Shame and guilt are distinguished by focus on the global self versus a specific behavior; event-type and public/private distinctions are not well supported. In one cited study, when participants were asked about exposure of an inferior self, only 6.7% identified the feeling as shame (twice as many identified guilt); in a moral-exposure condition, embarrassment was the modal emotion, three times more common than shame.
  • Guilt-proneness is linked to reparative action, other-oriented empathy, constructive anger responses, and less antisocial/risky behavior. Fifth-grade shame-free guilt predicted lower adolescent arrest, conviction, and incarceration, more safe sex, and less drug abuse while controlling for family income and mothers’ education; among jail inmates, guilt-proneness negatively predicted recidivism and substance abuse during the first year post-release. In Stuewig et al. (2006), across four samples, externalization of blame mediated shame-proneness and verbal/physical aggression, while guilt-proneness showed a direct inverse relationship to aggression in three of four samples.
  • Shame-proneness is linked to hiding/defensiveness, anger and aggression, psychological symptoms (low self-esteem, depression, anxiety, eating disorder symptoms, PTSD, suicidal ideation), and risky/illegal behavior; the review finds virtually no evidence for shame’s presumed adaptive inhibitory function. Psychobiologically, shame uniquely predicted proinflammatory cytokine response, and among people with HIV, persistent shame predicted t-cell decline.
  • Positive moral emotions and empathy are also reviewed: elevation, gratitude, and pride; gratitude is linked to well-being and resilience, and other-oriented empathy is linked to altruistic helping, whereas self-oriented personal distress is unrelated to altruism and may interfere with prosocial behavior.

Methods

  • Narrative review of current theory and research on moral emotions; no primary data collection.
  • Synthesizes prior empirical and theoretical work across children, adolescents, college students, adults, clinical/trauma samples, and jail inmates, as cited.
  • Main analysis is conceptual synthesis of shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride, elevation, gratitude, and empathy in relation to moral standards, moral decisions, and moral behavior.

Limitations

  • Stated: “owing to space limitations,” the chapter focuses on processes upstream from intentions; little research has examined relations between moral standards and moral emotional factors or their interactive influence. Also stated: childhood abuse–shame findings are mixed due to different measures and conceptualizations, retrospective reports have known weaknesses, and some cited studies used small samples.
  • Evident: as a narrative review, it does not report a systematic search strategy, meta-analysis, or primary empirical test; conclusions depend on the cited literature and the authors’ framework.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145

Cites

179 of 179 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 203 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Self-conscious moral emotions can exert a strong influence on moral choice and behavior by providing feedback regarding both anticipated behavior and actual behavior.

    “Thus, the self-conscious moral emotions can exert a strong influence on moral choice and behavior by providing critical feedback regarding both anticipated behavior (feedback in the form of anticipatory shame, guilt, or pride) and actual behavior (feedback in the form of consequential shame, guilt, or pride).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: People can anticipate their likely emotional reactions, such as guilt versus pride/self-approval, as they consider behavioral alternatives.
    • Rests on an assumption: People’s anticipatory emotional reactions are typically inferred based on their history—that is, based on their past consequential emotions in reaction to similar actual behaviors and events.
  • Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The frequency with which others were aware of respondents' behavior did not vary as a function of shame versus guilt.

    “Even more to the point, the frequency with which others were aware of the respondents’ behavior did not vary as a function of shame and guilt, in direct contradiction to the public/private distinction.”
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    • cites Tangney et al. 1994

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  • Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    The shame experience is linked with elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokine and cortisol.

    “Physiological research has linked the shame experience with elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokine and cortisol (Dickerson et al. 2004a), which can trigger postural signs of deference and self-concealment”
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    • cites Dickerson et al. 2004a

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  • Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Relative to guilt, shame was elicited somewhat more frequently by achievement events and personal events, which are each more private than relational and familial events.

    “Similarly, in a study of personal emotion narratives, Tracy & Robins (2006) found that, relative to guilt, shame was elicited somewhat more frequently by achievement events and personal events, which are each more private than relational and familial events.”
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    • cites Tracy & Robins 2006

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  • Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Shame is considered the more painful emotion than guilt because one's core self, not simply one's behavior, is at stake.

    “Nonetheless, shame is considered the more painful emotion because one’s core self—not simply one’s behavior—is at stake.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 58
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    Guilt promotes constructive, proactive pursuits, whereas shame promotes defensiveness, interpersonal separation, and distance.

    “On the whole, empirical evidence evaluating the action tendencies of people experiencing shame and guilt suggests that guilt promotes constructive, proactive pursuits, whereas shame promotes defensiveness, interpersonal separation, and distance.”
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    • cites Tangney et al. 1996a

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    Shame and guilt are not equally moral emotions; on balance, guilt appears to be the more adaptive emotion, benefiting individuals and their relationships, while shame is a moral emotion that can easily go awry.

    “One of the consistent themes emerging from empirical research is that shame and guilt are not equally “moral” emotions. On balance, guilt appears to be the more adaptive emotion, benefiting individuals and their relationships in a variety of ways (Baumeister et al. 1994, 1995a,b; Tangney 1991, 1995a,b), but there is growing evidence that shame is a moral emotion that can easily go awry (Tangney 1”
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    • cites Baumeister et al. 1994

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    • cites Tangney 1991

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    • cites Tangney 1995a,b

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame involves a negative evaluation of the global self; guilt involves a negative evaluation of a specific behavior.

    “According to Lewis (1971), shame involves a negative evaluation of the global self; guilt involves a negative evaluation of a specific behavior.”
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    • cites Lewis 1971

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame and guilt are equally likely to be experienced in the presence of others, and solitary shame experiences are about as common as solitary guilt experiences.

    “For example, a systematic analysis of the social context of personal shame- and guilt-eliciting events described by several hundred children and adults (Tangney et al. 1994) indicated that shame and guilt are equally likely to be experienced in the presence of others. Solitary shame experiences were about as common as solitary guilt experiences.”
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    • cites Tangney et al. 1994

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Moral emotions provide the motivational force to do good and to avoid doing bad.

    “Moral emotions provide the motivational force—the power and energy— to do good and to avoid doing bad (Kroll & Egan 2004).”
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    • cites Kroll & Egan 2004

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame corresponds with attempts to deny, hide, or escape the shame-inducing situation; guilt corresponds with reparative actions including confessions, apologies, and undoing the consequences of the behavior.

    “On the one hand, shame corresponds with attempts to deny, hide, or escape the shame-inducing situation. Physiological research has linked the shame experience with elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokine and cortisol (Dickerson et al. 2004a), which can trigger postural signs of deference and self-concealment (see New Directions in Research on Shame and Guilt: Physiological Correlates of Shame”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ketelaar & Au 2003

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    • cites Lewis 1971

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    • cites Lindsay-Hartz 1984

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Compared with those who are not shame-prone, shame-prone individuals are more likely to engage in externalization of blame, experience intense anger, and express that anger in destructive ways, including direct physical, verbal, and symbolic aggression, indirect aggression, displaced aggression, self-directed aggression, and anger held in.

    “In fact, compared with those who are not shame-prone, shame-prone individuals are more likely to engage in externalization of blame, experience intense anger, and express that anger in destructive ways, including direct physical, verbal, and symbolic aggression, indirect aggression (e.g., harming something important to the target, talking behind the target’s back), all manner of displaced aggr”
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    • cites Tangney & Dearing 2002

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame-proneness is negatively or negligibly correlated with other-oriented empathy and positively linked with the tendency to focus egocentrically on one's own distress.

    “In contrast, shame-proneness is (depending on assessment method) negatively or negligibly correlated with other-oriented empathy and positively linked with the tendency to focus egocentrically on one’s own distress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Tangney 1991

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    • cites Tangney 1995b

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    • cites Tangney & Dearing 2002

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Shame-prone individuals are more susceptible to both anticipatory and consequential experiences of shame than less shame-prone peers.

    “From this perspective, shame-prone individuals would be more susceptible to both anticipatory and consequential experiences of shame, relative to their less shame-prone peers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tangney 1990

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    Shame's egocentric focus on the bad self derails the empathic process, whereas guilt's focus on the bad behavior highlights negative consequences for others, fostering empathy and motivating people to right the wrong.

    “Shame’s inherently egocentric focus on the “bad self” (as opposed to the bad behavior) derails the empathic process. Individuals in the throes of shame turn tightly inward, and are thus less able to focus cognitive and emotional resources on the harmed other (Tangney et al. 1994). In contrast, people experiencing guilt are specifically focused on the bad behavior, which in turn highlights the neg”
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    • cites Tangney et al. 1994

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Guilt is typically a less devastating, less painful experience than shame because the object of condemnation is a specific behavior, not the entire self.

    “Guilt, on the other hand, is typically a less devastating, less painful experience because the object of condemnation is a specific behavior, not the entire self.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Internal, stable, uncontrollable attributions for failure are positively related to shame, whereas internal, unstable, controllable attributions for failure are positively related to guilt.

    “Most recently, for example, Tracy & Robins (2006) employed both experimental and correlational methods showing that internal, stable, uncontrollable attributions for failure were positively related to shame, whereas internal, unstable, controllable attributions for failure were positively related to guilt.”
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    • cites Tracy & Robins 2006

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Moral emotions are a key element of the human moral apparatus and influence the link between moral standards and moral behavior.

    “Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: People’s moral standards are dictated in part by universal moral laws and in part by culturally specific proscriptions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    When describing shame-inducing situations, respondents expressed more concern with others' evaluations of the self; when describing guilt experiences, respondents were more concerned with their effect on others.

    “Tangney et al. (1994) found that when describing shame-inducing situations, respondents expressed more concern with others’ evaluations of the self. In contrast, when describing guilt experiences, respondents were more concerned with their effect on others.”
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    • cites Tangney et al. 1994

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    Guilt goes hand in hand with other-oriented empathy, whereas shame disrupts individuals' ability to form empathic connections with others.

    “Specifically, guilt goes hand in hand with other-oriented empathy. Feelings of shame, in contrast, apparently disrupt individuals’ ability to form empathic connections with others.”
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    • cites Joireman 2004

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    • cites Leith & Baumeister 1998

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    • cites Tangney 1991

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    The moral emotions appear to be well established by middle childhood and have implications for moral behavior for years to come.

    “The moral emotions appear to be well established by middle childhood and have implications for moral behavior for years to come (Tangney & Dearing 2002).”
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    • cites Tangney & Dearing 2002

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Children prone to shame-free guilt in the fifth grade were, in adolescence, less likely to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated; more likely to practice safe sex; and less likely to abuse drugs, controlling for family income and mothers' education.

    “Children prone to shame-free guilt in the fifth grade were, in adolescence, less likely to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated. They were more likely to practice safe sex, and they were less likely to abuse drugs. Importantly, these findings held when controlling for family income and mothers’ education.”
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    • cites Tangney & Dearing 2002

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    The propensity to experience "shame-free" guilt in response to clear transgressions is generally unrelated to psychological problems, whereas shame is consistently associated with maladaptive processes and outcomes at multiple levels.

    “The propensity to experience “shame-free” guilt in response to clear transgressions is generally unrelated to psychological problems, whereas shame is consistently associated with maladaptive processes and outcomes at multiple levels.”
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    • cites Tangney & Dearing 2002

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame proneness is significantly correlated with perpetration of psychological abuse in dating relationships by heterosexual college men, and men's anger mediates this relationship.

    “Shame proneness was significantly correlated with perpetration of psychological abuse, and men’s anger mediated this relationship.”
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    • cites Harper et al. 2005

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Compared with their nonguilt-prone peers, guilt-prone individuals are less likely to engage in direct, indirect, and displaced aggression when angered, and they report positive long-term consequences to their anger.

    “Compared with their nonguilt-prone peers, guilt-prone individuals are less likely to engage in direct, indirect, and displaced aggression when angered. And they report positive long-term consequences to their anger (Tangney et al. 1996a).”
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    • cites Tangney et al. 1996a

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    In a study of anger episodes among romantically involved couples, shamed partners were significantly more angry, more likely to engage in aggressive behavior, and less likely to elicit conciliatory behavior from their perpetrating significant other.

    “For example, in a study of anger episodes among romantically involved couples, shamed partners were significantly more angry, more likely to engage in aggressive behavior, and less likely to elicit conciliatory behavior from their perpetrating significant other (Tangney 1995b).”
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    • cites Tangney 1995b

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame and anger resulted in higher levels of cardiovascular reactivity than pride; participants in the shame condition showed higher peripheral resistance, and participants in the anger condition showed higher cardiac contractility.

    “They found that the negatively valenced emotions of shame and anger resulted in higher levels of cardiovascular reactivity than pride; importantly, participants in the shame condition showed higher peripheral resistance (associated with hypertension) and participants in the anger condition showed higher cardiac contractility (associated with coronary disease).”
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    • cites Herrald & Tomaka (2002)

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Individuals in the social evaluation condition reported more shame and lower self-esteem than did individuals in the nonevaluative condition.

    “Individuals in the social evaluation condition reported more shame (and lower self-esteem) than did individuals in the nonevaluative condition.”
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    • cites Gruenewald et al. (2004)

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Bennett et al. (2005) report an association between physical abuse and nonverbal shame, although there was not a significant relationship for neglect.

    “Bennett et al. (2005) report an association between physical abuse and nonverbal shame, although there was not a significant relationship for neglect.”
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    • cites Bennett et al. (2005)

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Less attention has been directed toward how people cope with aversive feelings of shame and guilt.

    “Less attention has been directed toward how people cope with aversive feelings of shame and guilt.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    Attack Other bears considerable resemblance to the TOSCA Externalization of Blame scale.

    “Attack Other bears considerable resemblance to the TOSCA Externalization of Blame scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Severely punitive parenting practices may engender in children feelings of helplessness and self-blame, which may then lead to a globalized sense of shame.

    “Also, severely punitive parenting practices may engender in children feelings of helplessness and self-blame, which may then lead to a globalized sense of shame.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Shame uniquely predicted the immune-related cytokine response; changes in neither guilt nor general negative affect significantly predicted changes in the cytokine response.

    “Consistent with theory differentiating shame and guilt, shame uniquely predicted this immune-related response; changes in neither guilt nor general negative affect significantly predicted changes in the cytokine response.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Of the four scales of the COSS-4, the Withdrawal and Attack Self scales are most highly correlated with shame, as well as measures of more general psychological adjustment.

    “As one might expect, of the four scales of the COSS-4, the Withdrawal and Attack Self scales are most highly correlated with shame, as well as measures of more general psychological adjustment (Elison et al. 2006a,b).”
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    • cites Elison et al. 2006a,b

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    The use of different terms to describe similar types of response most likely reflects differences in theoretical formulation.

    “The use of different terms to describe similar types of response most likely reflects differences in theoretical formulation.”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Body shame has been consistently associated with self-objectification and eating disorder symptoms.

    ““Body shame” has been consistently associated with self-objectification and eating disorder symptoms (Hallsworth et al. 2005).”
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    • cites Hallsworth et al. 2005

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Although heart rate and systolic blood pressure increased in both the social evaluative and nonevaluative conditions, the response was somewhat more marked in the social evaluative condition.

    “Although heart rate and systolic blood pressure increased in both the social evaluative and nonevaluative conditions, the response was somewhat more marked in the social evaluative condition.”
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    • cites Gruenewald et al. (2004)

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    In a sample of undergraduates, both subscales of the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale were negatively related to the guilt-like Adaptive Response to Shame scale and positively related to Attack Others and Avoidance scales.

    “In a sample of undergraduates, Campbell & Elison (2005) found that both subscales of the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRPS) were negatively related to the guilt-like Adaptive Response to Shame scale and positively related to Attack Others and Avoidance scales.”
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    • cites Campbell & Elison (2005)

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    These same participants evidenced increased proinflammatory cytokine activity from pretest to post-test, and this response was significantly predicted by increases in self-reported shame.

    “More importantly, these same participants evidenced increased proinflammatory cytokine activity from pretest to post-test, and this response was significantly predicted by increases in self-reported shame.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Abstract

    The TOSCA Detachment scale appears less internally consistent than the COSS-4 Avoidance scale.

    “And Avoidance resembles the TOSCA Detachment scale (although the TOSCA Detachment scale appears less internally consistent than the COSS-4 Avoidance scale).”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Hoglund & Nicholas (1995) reported no relationship between a history of physical abuse and shame-proneness, but did find a link between shame-proneness and history of emotional abuse.

    “Although Hoglund & Nicholas (1995) reported no relationship between a history of physical abuse and shame-proneness, they did find a link between shame-proneness and history of emotional abuse.”
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    • cites Hoglund & Nicholas (1995)

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Embarrassability is associated with neuroticism, high levels of negative affect, self-consciousness, and a fear of negative evaluation from others.

    “Research has shown that embarrassability is associated with neuroticism, high levels of negative affect, self-consciousness, and a fear of negative evaluation from others (Edelmann & McCusker 1986, Leary & Meadows 1991, Miller 1995b).”
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    • cites Edelmann & McCusker 1986

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    • cites Leary & Meadows 1991

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    • cites Miller 1995b

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    The findings regarding the relationship between childhood abuse and subsequent difficulties with shame are mixed, due in part to different measures and conceptualizations of maltreatment and shame.

    “In sum, the findings regarding the relationship between childhood abuse and subsequent difficulties with shame are mixed, no doubt due in part to the fact that studies have employed different measures and conceptualizations of both maltreatment and shame (Berliner 2005).”
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    • cites Berliner 2005

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Group-based guilt has been associated with empathy and a motivation to repair or make amends.

    “As with personal guilt experiences, group-based guilt has been associated with empathy (Zebel et al. 2004) and a motivation to repair or make amends (Iyer et al. 2003, Lickel et al. 2005, Swim & Miller 1999, Zebel et al. 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Zebel et al. 2004

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    • cites Iyer et al. 2003

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    • cites Lickel et al. 2005

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    Premisereasoning
    § Abstract

    To the extent that the self is partly defined by interpersonal relations and group memberships, the behavior of an in-group member can be construed as reflecting on the self.

    “To the extent that the self is, in part, defined by our interpersonal relations and group memberships, it is possible to construe the behavior of an in-group member as reflecting on the self.”
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    • Rests on an assumption: The self is partly defined by interpersonal relations and group memberships.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data
    § Abstract

    Other common embarrassment-inducing situations include awkward social interactions and being conspicuous.

    “Other common embarrassment-inducing situations include awkward social interactions and being conspicuous (e.g., during the “birthday” song).”
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Pride serves to enhance people's self-worth and to encourage future behavior that conforms to social standards of worth or merit.

    “From their perspective, pride serves to enhance people’s self-worth and, perhaps more importantly, to encourage future behavior that conforms to social standards of worth or merit (see also Barrett 1995).”
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    • cites Mascolo & Fischer (1995)

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    • cites Barrett 1995

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Neither Alessandri & Lewis (1996) nor Stuewig & McCloskey (2005) found a relationship between history of sexual abuse and shame, but both studied small samples of sexually abused individuals.

    “However, neither Alessandri & Lewis (1996), using observational measures of shame, nor Stuewig & McCloskey (2005), using self-reports of shame-proneness, found a relationship between history of sexual abuse and shame, but both studied small samples of sexually abused individuals.”
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    • cites Alessandri & Lewis (1996)

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    • cites Stuewig & McCloskey (2005)

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    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Vicarious guilt is more likely when one's interpersonal dependence with the perpetrator is salient, and when relational-based concerns are highlighted by a focus on harm to another group or individual.

    “Vicarious guilt, on the other hand, is more likely when one’s interpersonal dependence with the perpetrator is salient, and when relational-based concerns are highlighted by a focus on harm to another group or individual.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lickel et al. 2005

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    Individuals who disclosed their abuse histories expressed more shame verbally, whereas those who did not disclose expressed more shame nonverbally, relative to control participants.

    “In other words, individuals who disclosed their abuse histories expressed more shame verbally, whereas those who did not disclose expressed more shame nonverbally, relative to control participants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    To date most theory and research on moral affect has emphasized the negatively valenced self-conscious quadrant.

    “To date most theory and research on moral affect has emphasized the negatively valenced self-conscious quadrant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Current conceptualizations of empathy integrate both affective and cognitive components.

    “Current conceptualizations of empathy integrate both affective and cognitive components.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Elevation is the positive emotion elicited when observing others behaving in a particularly virtuous, commendable, or superhuman way.

    “Just as disgust is the moral emotion people experience when observing violations of the ethic of divinity, elevation is the positive emotion elicited when observing others behaving in a particularly virtuous, commendable, or superhuman way (Haidt 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haidt 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    It may be useful to distinguish between two types of pride.

    “In parallel to the self-versus-behavior distinction of guilt and shame, it may be useful to distinguish between two types of pride.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Others have distinguished between other-oriented empathy and self-oriented personal distress.

    “Others have distinguished between other-oriented empathy and self-oriented personal distress (Batson 1990, Batson & Coke 1981, Davis 1983).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Batson 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Batson & Coke 1981

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Davis 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Haidt focuses primarily on the emotions of elevation and gratitude-emotions experienced when observing the admirable deeds of others, and that then motivate observers to engage in admirable deeds themselves.

    “In his work, Haidt focuses primarily on the emotions of elevation and gratitude—emotions that are experienced when observing the admirable deeds of others, and that then motivate observers to engage in admirable deeds themselves.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haidt (2000, 2003)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Little empirical research has been conducted on individual differences in proneness to pride in self or pride in behavior.

    “Little empirical research has been conducted on individual differences in proneness to pride in self (or pride in behavior, for that matter).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Eisenberg (1986) explains that sympathy involves feelings of concern for the emotional state of another, but does not necessarily involve the vicarious experience of the other person's feelings or emotions.

    “Eisenberg (1986) explains that sympathy involves feelings of concern for the emotional state of another, but does not necessarily involve the vicarious experience of the other person’s feelings or emotions (e.g., emotional matching).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eisenberg (1986)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Anger is a negatively valenced, other-focused emotion not typically considered in the morally relevant sphere.

    “Anger is a negatively valenced, other-focused emotion not typically considered in the morally relevant sphere.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Tangney (1990) distinguished between alpha pride and beta pride; M. Lewis (1992) distinguished between hubris and pride; Tracy & Robins (2004b) distinguished between hubris and more event-specific achievement-oriented pride.

    “Along similar lines, Tangney (1990) distinguished between “alpha” pride (pride in self) and “beta” pride (pride in behavior), M.Lewis (1992) distinguished between hubris (pride-fulness) and pride (experienced in reference to a specific action or behavior), and Tracy & Robins (2004b) distinguished between hubris and more event-specific achievement-oriented pride.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Tangney (1990)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites M.Lewis (1992)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tracy & Robins (2004b)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Abstract

    Elevation appears to be the quintessential positive emotion, especially apt to foster a broaden-and-build orientation to the world.

    “In this respect, elevation appears to be the quintessential positive emotion, especially apt to foster a “broaden and build” (Frederickson 2000) orientation to the world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Frederickson 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Empathy is not a discrete emotion; rather it is an emotional process with substantial implications for moral behavior.

    “In contrast to the other moral emotions discussed in this review, empathy is not a discrete emotion. Rather it is an emotional process with substantial implications for moral behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Feshbach suggests that empathic responsiveness requires three interrelated skills or capacities: the cognitive ability to take another person's perspective, the cognitive ability to accurately recognize and discriminate another person's affective experience, and the affective ability to personally experience a range of emotions.

    “She suggests that empathic responsiveness requires three interrelated skills or capacities: (a) the cognitive ability to take another person’s perspective, (b) the cognitive ability to accurately recognize and discriminate another person’s affective experience, and (c) the affective ability to personally experience a range of emotions (since empathy involves sharing another person’s emotional”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Feshbach (1975)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation
    § Abstract

    One may feel concern (sympathy) for an angered individual without being vicariously angered oneself.

    “Thus, one may feel concern (sympathy) for an angered individual without being vicariously angered oneself (an empathic reaction).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract

    The emotions of contempt and disgust also stem from negative evaluations of others, but seem somewhat less apt than righteous anger to motivate morally corrective action.

    “The emotions of contempt and disgust also stem from negative evaluations of others, but seem somewhat less apt than righteous anger to motivate morally corrective action.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Other-oriented empathy involves taking another person's perspective and vicariously experiencing similar feelings.

    “Other-oriented empathy involves taking another person’s perspective and vicariously experiencing similar feelings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Grateful people are often motivated to respond prosocially-both to their benefactor and toward others not involved in the gratitude-eliciting act.

    “They observe that grateful people are often motivated to respond prosocially— both to their benefactor and toward others not involved in the gratitude-eliciting act.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McCullough et al. (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    McCullough et al. (2001) classify gratitude as a moral affect because feelings of gratitude result from moral behavior of the benefactor and engender subsequent moral motivation on the part of recipients.

    “McCullough et al. (2001) classify gratitude as a moral affect, not because the experience and expression of gratitude is in and of itself “moral,” but because feelings of gratitude (a) result from moral (e.g., prosocial, helping) behavior of the benefactor, and (b) engender subsequent moral motivation on the part of recipients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McCullough et al. (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    In a study of college students, participants reported warm, pleasant, tingling feelings in their chest, felt open to other people as their attention turned outward, and felt motivated to help others and to become better people themselves.

    “Participants reported warm, pleasant, “tingling” feelings in their chest, they felt open to other people as their attention turned outward, and they felt motivated to help others and to become better people themselves.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haidt et al. (2002)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Among participants in both the United States and Japan, feelings of contempt were differentially linked to violations of the ethic of community, whereas feelings of disgust were linked to violations of the ethic of divinity.

    “Among participants in both the United States and Japan, Rozin et al. (1999) found that feelings of contempt were differentially linked to violations of the ethic of community (e.g., violations of social hierarchy), whereas feelings of disgust were linked to violations of the ethic of divinity (e.g., actions that remind us of our animal nature, such as defecation, problems with hygiene, etc., as”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rozin et al. (1999)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Gratitude is a pleasant affective state, distinct from indebtedness, which implies an obligation and is often experienced as a negative state.

    “Gratitude is a pleasant affective state, distinct from indebtedness, which implies an obligation and is often experienced as a negative state.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Lewis (1992) views hubris as largely maladaptive, noting that hubristic individuals are inclined to distort and invent situations to enhance the self, which can lead to interpersonal problems.

    “Lewis (1992) views hubris as largely maladaptive, noting that hubristic individuals are inclined to distort and invent situations to enhance the self, which can lead to interpersonal problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lewis (1992)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Gratitude is another example of an other-oriented, positively valenced moral affect.

    “Gratitude is another example of an other-oriented, positively valenced moral affect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Tracy & Robins (2006), drawing on multiple methods, present compelling empirical evidence for two types of pride.

    “Tracy & Robins (2006), drawing on multiple methods, present compelling empirical evidence for these two types of pride.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tracy & Robins (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    People are inclined to feel gratitude specifically in response to another person's benevolence-when they are the recipient of benefits provided by another, especially when those benefits are unexpected and/or costly to the benefactor.

    “People are inclined to feel gratitude specifically in response to another person’s benevolence—that is, when they are the recipient of benefits provided by another, especially when those benefits are unexpected and/or costly to the benefactor.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    In a series of experimental studies, feelings of gratitude enhanced psychological resilience, physical health, and the quality of daily life.

    “In a series of experimental studies, feelings of gratitude enhanced psychological resilience, physical health, and the quality of daily life (Emmons & McCullough 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Emmons & McCullough 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Abstract

    The TOSCA pride subscales have very modest reliabilities, largely because they draw on only a few items.

    “These sub-scales, however, have very modest reliabilities, largely because they draw on only a few items.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Coke and colleagues (1978) proposed a two-stage model of empathic responding, whereby perspective-taking facilitates empathic concern, which in turn leads to a desire to help.

    “Similarly, Coke and colleagues (1978) proposed a two-stage model of empathic responding, whereby perspective-taking facilitates empathic concern, which in turn leads to a desire to help.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Coke and colleagues (1978)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § Abstract

    Other-oriented empathy often involves feelings of sympathy and concern for the other person, and often leads to helping behavior.

    “These responses often involve feelings of sympathy and concern for the other person, and often lead to helping behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Empathic concern for others has been linked to altruistic helping behavior, whereas self-oriented personal distress is unrelated to altruism and may interfere with prosocial behavior.

    “Empathic concern for others has been linked to altruistic helping behavior, whereas self-oriented personal distress is unrelated to altruism (Batson et al. 1988) and may in fact inter-fere with prosocial behavior (Davis&Oathout 1987; Eisenberg et al. 1990, 1993; Estrada 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Batson et al. 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Davis&Oathout 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Eisenberg et al. 1990, 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    The empathic individual's focus remains on the experiences and needs of the other person, not on his or her own empathic response.

    “Importantly, the empathic individual’s focus remains on the experiences and needs of the other person, not on his or her own empathic response.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Little research has examined the relation between moral standards and moral emotional factors, much less their interactive influence in moderating the link between moral standards and people's moral behavior.

    “Little research has examined the relation between moral standards and moral emotional factors, much less their interactive influence in moderating the link between moral standards and people’s moral behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Empathy and its close cousin sympathy have been cited as central to the human moral affective system for at least three reasons.

    “Empathy and its close cousin sympathy have been cited as central to the human moral affective system for at least three reasons (Eisenberg et al. 2004, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eisenberg et al. 2004, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given
    § Abstract

    Self-oriented personal distress involves a primary focus on the feelings, needs, and experiences of the empathizer.

    “In contrast, self-oriented personal distress involves a primary focus on the feelings, needs, and experiences of the empathizer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § Abstract

    Although feelings of guilt generally arise from some failure or violation of moral standards, proneness to guilt (an affective disposition) is conceptually distinct from moral standards (a set of beliefs guiding one's evaluation of behavior).

    “Although feelings of guilt generally arise from some failure or violation of moral standards, proneness to guilt (an affective disposition) is conceptually distinct from moral standards (a set of beliefs guiding one’s evaluation of behavior).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
80 of 80

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People can anticipate their likely emotional reactions, such as guilt versus pride/self-approval, as they consider behavioral alternatives.

    “People can anticipate their likely emotional reactions (e.g., guilt versus pride/self-approval) as they consider behavioral alternatives.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People’s anticipatory emotional reactions are typically inferred based on their history—that is, based on their past consequential emotions in reaction to similar actual behaviors and events.

    “In our view, people’s anticipatory emotional reactions are typically inferred based on history—that is, based on their past consequential emotions in reaction to similar actual behaviors and events.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People’s moral standards are dictated in part by universal moral laws and in part by culturally specific proscriptions.

    “People’s moral standards are dictated in part by universal moral laws, and in part by culturally specific proscriptions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The self is partly defined by interpersonal relations and group memberships.

    “To the extent that the self is, in part, defined by our interpersonal relations and group memberships, it is possible to construe the behavior of an in-group member as reflecting on the self.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Moral behavior can be evaluated with respect to the welfare of the individual, his or her close relationships, or society.

    “Thus, when considering the welfare of the individual, his or her close relationships, or society, feelings of guilt represent the moral emotion of choice.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The finding supports the notion that emotions guide behavior and corroborates current theoretical proposals that the anticipation of emotional consequences affects future behavior.

    “This finding supports the notion that emotions guide behavior (Barrett, 1998; Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek, 2007) and corroborates current theoretical proposals that the anticipation of emotional consequences affects future behavior (Eder et al., 2015; Ridderinkhof, 2017).”

    From Emotion understanding and the moral self-concept as motivators of prosocial behavior in middle childhood (2020) · cites this paper as Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek, 2007

  • This caveat might have contributed to the similar results in the meta-analyses on moral cognition and on ToM (rather than on empathy), given that emotion processing is thought to play a paramount role in real-world moral cognition.

    “This caveat might have contributed to the similar results in the meta-analyses on moral cognition and on ToM (rather than on empathy), given that emotion processing is thought to play a paramount role in real-world moral cognition (Krebs 2008; Tangney et al. 2007; Haidt 2001).”

    From Parsing the neural correlates of moral cognition: ALE meta-analysis on morality, theory of mind, and empathy (2012) · cites this paper as Tangney et al. 2007

  • Self-blame-related feelings require a concern about other people and the consequences of one's actions for others, as well as an overgeneralised feeling of control for other people's wrongdoings.

    “These feelings do not only entail negative self-reference, but also require a concern about other people and the consequences of one’s actions for others ( Taihara and Malik, 2016 , Tangney et al., 2007 ), as well as an overgeneralised feeling of control for other people’s wrongdoings ( Duan et al., 2021 , O'Connor et al., 2002 )”

    From Self-blame-selective hyper-connectivity between anterior temporal and subgenual cortices predicts prognosis in major depressive disorder (2023) · cites this paper as Tangney et al., 2007

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Leeming and Boyle citation year differs from reference list

    Minor

    The text cites Leeming and Boyle as a 2002 study, but the corresponding reference-list entry gives 2004.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 23

  1. Batson CD, 1991, The Altruism Question.
  2. Clark HB, 1988, Educ. Treat. Child., 11, 45
  3. Cupach WR, 1990, Communication Yearbook 13, 323
  4. Eisenberg N, 1986, Altruistic Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior.
  5. Eisenberg N, 1990, Merrill-Palmer Q., 36, 507
  6. Ferguson TJ, 1991, Child Dev., 62, 827
  7. Ferguson TJ, 2000, Genet. Soc. Gen. Psychol. Monogr., 126, 319
  8. Feshbach ND, 1987, Empathy and Its Development, 271
  9. Haidt J, 2002, Elevation: An Emotion That Makes People Want to Do Good Deeds.
  10. Lewis M, 1992, Shame: The Exposed Self.
  11. Marschall DE, 1996, Effects of induced shame on subsequent empathy and altruistic behavior.
  12. McLaughlin DE, 2002, Diss. Abstr. Int. B Sci. Eng., 62, 4470
  13. Merisca R, 1994, Guilt, not moral reasoning, relates to volunteerism, prosocial behavior, lowered aggressiveness, and eschewal of racism.
  14. Schaefer DA, 2000, Diss. Abstr. Int. B Sci. Eng., 60, 2389
  15. Schmader T, 2006, Stigma and Group Inequality: Social Psychological Approaches, 261
  16. Shweder RA, 1997, Morality and Health, 119
  17. Tangney JP, 1993, Symptoms of Depression, 161
  18. Tangney JP, 2006, J. Soc. Clin. Psychol.
  19. Tangney JP, 1991, Children's shame-proneness, but not guilt-proneness, is related to emotional and behavioral maladjustment.
  20. Tomkins SS, 1963, Affect, Imagery, Consciousness. Volume 2. The Negative Affects.
  21. Weiss J, 1993, How Psychotherapy Works.
  22. Weitzman O, 2004, HIV-related Shame and Guilt Predict CD4 Decline.
  23. Zahn-Waxler C, Robinson J. 1995. Empathy and guilt: early origins of feelings of responsibility. See Tangney & Fischer 1995, pp.143–73

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J.
Affiliations
  • George Mason University (US)
  • Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030;,
  • Harvey Mudd College (US)
ORCID
Tangney, June Price
Venue
Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
2007-01-01
Volume
58
Issue
1
Pages
345-372
ISSN
  • 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-2085
DOI
10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145
PMC
PMC3083636
OpenAlex
W2136267579
Semantic Scholar
78b91838627eb2c02e07c2fb544acd004edac7e4
Cited by
3,222
References
177
Citations by year
2026: 261 · 2025: 295 · 2024: 253 · 2023: 240 · 2022: 253 · 2021: 238 · 2020: 219 · 2019: 222 · 2018: 152 · 2017: 137 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 152 · 2014: 148 · 2013: 147 · 2012: 124
FWCI
3.94
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute on Drug Abuse (#R01 DA14694, R01DA014694)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Psychology of Moral and Emotional Judgment
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Ethics in Business and Education
Keywords
moral emotions, moral behavior, shame, guilt, embarrassment, body shame, childhood abuse, collective shame, altitude, gratitude, empathy
MeSH terms
Adult, Anger, Body Image, Child, Child Abuse, Conscience, Defense Mechanisms, Emotions, Empathy, Guilt, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Morals, Shame, Social Behavior, Social Conformity, Personal Construct Theory, Virtues

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Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

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