Experimental design and primary data analysis methods for comparing adaptive interventions.
Open accessAbstract
In recent years, research in the area of intervention development has been shifting from the traditional fixed-intervention approach to adaptive interventions, which allow greater individualization and adaptation of intervention options (i.e., intervention type and/or dosage) over time. Adaptive interventions are operationalized via a sequence of decision rules that specify how intervention options should be adapted to an individual's characteristics and changing needs, with the general aim to optimize the long-term effectiveness of the intervention. Here, we review adaptive interventions, discussing the potential contribution of this concept to research in the behavioral and social sciences. We then propose the sequential multiple assignment randomized trial (SMART), an experimental design useful for addressing research questions that inform the construction of high-quality adaptive interventions. To clarify the SMART approach and its advantages, we compare SMART with other experimental approaches. We also provide methods for analyzing data from SMART to address primary research questions that inform the construction of a high-quality adaptive intervention.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Different SMART designs are suitable for addressing different types of scientific questions.
“Different SMART designs are suitable for addressing different types of scientific questions [21,23].”
From Introduction to SMART designs for the development of adaptive interventions: with application to weight loss research (2014) · cites this paper as [21]
The SMART implementation design belongs to the factorial experiment family and uses multiple randomizations, allowing a site's implementation process to be altered when it is not working.
“The Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Implementation Trial (SMART) implementation design is a special case of the factorial experiment (32, 67, 78) involving multistage randomizations where the site-level implementation process can be modified if unsuccessful.”
From An Overview of Research and Evaluation Designs for Dissemination and Implementation (2017) · cites this paper as [78]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models
LIANG, K.-Y., & ZEGER, S. L. (1986) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/73.1.13 · Cited by 18,550 · see citing works
Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't
Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M. C., Gray, J. A. M., Haynes, R. B., & Richardson, W. S. (1996) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71 · Cited by 15,769 · see citing works
(2002) · Cited by 13,211 · see citing works
(1979) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,252 · see citing works
Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and nonrandomized studies
Rubin, D. B. (1974) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0037350 · Cited by 9,436 · see citing works
Tosi, H. L. (1991) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4278976 · Cited by 4,147 · see citing works
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990) · Successful Aging · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665684.003 · Cited by 3,739 · see citing works
Constructing Inverse Probability Weights for Marginal Structural Models
Cole, S. R., & Hernan, M. A. (2008) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwn164 · Cited by 2,796 · see citing works
Review: a gentle introduction to imputation of missing values.
Donders, A. R. T., van der Heijden, G. J. M. G., Stijnen, T., & Moons, K. G. M. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.01.014 · Cited by 2,582 · see citing works
Bayesian inference for causal effects: The role of randomization
Rubin, D. B. (1978) · The Annals of Statistics · doi:10.1214/aos/1176344064 · Cited by 2,503 · see citing works
Robins, J. (1986) · Mathematical Modelling · doi:10.1016/0270-0255(86)90088-6 · Cited by 2,451 · see citing works
A theory of goal setting & task performance
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,938 · see citing works
Hernán, M. Á., Brumback, B., & Robins, J. M. (2000) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/00001648-200009000-00012 · Cited by 1,772 · see citing works
On the Application of Probability Theory to Agricultural Experiments. Essay on Principles. Section 9
Neyman, J., Dabrowska, D. M., & Speed, T. P. (1990) · Statistical Science · doi:10.1214/ss/1177012031 · Cited by 1,616 · see citing works
Forcing a sequential experiment to be balanced
EFRON, B. (1971) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/58.3.403 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
The theory and practice of group psychotherapy, 4th ed.
Yalom, I. D., & Leszcz, M. (1995) · Cited by 707 · see citing works
Fabiano, G. A., Pelham, W. E., Waschbusch, D. A., Gnagy, E. M., Lahey, B. B., Chronis, A. M., Onyango, A. N., Kipp, H., Lopez-Williams, A., & Burrows-MacLean, L. D. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3503_3 · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Self-citationStroup, T., Mcevoy, J., Swartz, M., Byerly, M., Glick, I., Cañive, J., McGee, M., Simpson, G., Stevens, M., & Lieberman, J. (2003) · Schizophrenia bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006986 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
Stratified Randomization for Clinical Trials
Kernan, W. N., Viscoli, C. M., Makuch, R. W., Brass, L. M., & Horwitz, R. I. (1999) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(98)00138-3 · Cited by 627 · see citing works
A Conceptual Framework for Adaptive Preventive Interventions
Collins, L. M., Murphy, S. A., & Bierman, K. L. (2004) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1023/b:prev.0000037641.26017.00 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Self-citationAn experimental design for the development of adaptive treatment strategies
Murphy, S. A. (2005) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.2022 · Cited by 595 · see citing works
Self-citationMeyer, D. E., & Kornblum, S. (1993) · Cited by 523 · see citing works
D, M. F. M., Rush, A. J., Trivedi, M. H., Nierenberg, A. A., Thase, M. E., Sackeïm, H. A., Quitkin, F. M., Wisniewski, S. R., Lavori, P. W., Rosenbaum, J. F., et al. (2003) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(02)00107-7 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
A control systems conceptualization of the goal-setting and changing process
Campion, M. A., & Lord, R. G. (1982) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(82)90221-5 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
A definition of causal effect for epidemiological research
Hernán, M. Á. (2004) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2002.006361 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Stone, R. M., Berg, D. T., George, S. L., Dodge, R. K., Paciucci, P. A., Schulman, P., Lee, E. J., Moore, J. O., Powell, B. L., & Schiffer, C. A. (1995) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199506223322503 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Community interventions and effective prevention.
Wandersman, A., & Florin, P. (2003) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.6-7.441 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Collins, L. M., Dziak, J. J., & Li, R. (2009) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0015826 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
Hu, F. B., Goldberg, J., Hedeker, D., Flay, B. R., & Pentz, M. A. (1998) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009511 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Marginal Mean Models for Dynamic Regimes
Murphy, S. A., van der Laan, M. J., Robins, J. M., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2001) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214501753382327 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Self-citation(2003) · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Hernán, M. Á., Brumback, B., & Robins, J. M. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1144 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK AND COGNITIVE PLAYFULNESS ON PERFORMANCE IN MICROCOMPUTER SOFTWARE TRAINING
Martocchio, J. J., & Webster, J. (1992) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00860.x · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Design, analysis and presentation of factorial randomised controlled trials
Montgomery, A. A., Peters, T. J., & Little, P. S. (2003) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/1471-2288-3-26 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Connell, A. M., Dishion, T. J., Yasui, M., & Kavanagh, K. (2007) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.75.4.568 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Enriching Goal-Setting Theory with Time: An Integrated Approach
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H. (2004) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2004.13670973 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Dynamic treatment regimes: practical design considerations
Lavori, P. W., & Dawson, R. (2004) · Clinical Trials · doi:10.1191/1740774s04cn002oa · Cited by 229 · see citing works
A Design for Testing Clinical Strategies: Biased Adaptive Within-Subject Randomization
Lavori, P. W., & Dawson, R. (2000) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.1111/1467-985x.00154 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Some methodological and statistical issues in the study of change processes in psychotherapy
Laurenceau, J., Hayes, A. M., & Feldman, G. C. (2007) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.007 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Is there a case for extended interventions for alcohol and drug use disorders?
McKay, J. R. (2005) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01208.x · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Schneider, L. S. S., Tariot, P. N., Lyketsos, C. G., Dagerman, K., Davis, K. L., Thomas, S., Hsiao, J., Jeste, D. V., Katz, I. R., Olin, J. T., et al. (2001) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00019442-200111000-00004 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Estimation and extrapolation of optimal treatment and testing strategies
Robins, J., Orellana, L., & Rotnitzky, A. (2008) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.3301 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Robins, J. M. (1987) · Computers & Mathematics with Applications · doi:10.1016/0898-1221(87)90238-0 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
The Skill of Attention Control: Acquisition and Execution of Attention Strategies
Gopher, D. (1993) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/1477.003.0021 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders
FRANCES, R. J., Miller, S. I., & Mack, A. H. (1991) · Cited by 183 · see citing works
The nomological network of self‐management strategies and career success
Abele, A. E., & Wiese, B. S. (2008) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317907x256726 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Restricted Randomization Designs in Clinical Trials
Simon, R. M. (1979) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2530354 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Pelham, W. E., Evans, S. W., Gnagy, E. M., & Greenslade, K. E. (1992) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/02796015.1992.12085615 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationRevisiting field experimentation: Field notes for the future.
Shadish, W. R. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.3 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Strengthening clinical effectiveness trials: Equipoise-stratified randomization
Lavori, P. W., Rush, A. J., Wisniewski, S. R., Alpert, J. E., D, M. F. M., Kupfer, D. J., Nierenberg, A. A., Quitkin, F. M., Sackeïm, H. A., Thase, M. E., et al. (2001) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01223-9 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Lunceford, J. K., Davidian, M., & Tsiatis, A. A. (2002) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.0006-341x.2002.00048.x · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Dziak, J. J., Nahum-Shani, I., & Collins, L. M. (2012) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0026972 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationFluoxetine for Bulimia Nervosa Following Poor Response to Psychotherapy
Walsh, B. T., Agras, W. S., Devlin, M. J., Fairburn, C. G., Wilson, G. T., Kahn, C., & Chally, M. K. (2000) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1332 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Q-learning: A data analysis method for constructing adaptive interventions.
Nahum-Shani, I., Qian, M., Almirall, D., Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, B., Fabiano, G. A., Waxmonsky, J. G., Yu, J., & Murphy, S. A. (2012) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0029373 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationWeisz, J. R., Chu, B. C., & Polo, A. J. (2004) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph085 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Ferreira, M. M. C., Montanari, C. A., & Gaudio, A. C. (2002) · Química Nova · doi:10.1590/s0100-40422002000300017 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Connell, A. M., & Dishion, T. J. (2008) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.574 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Selecting Therapeutic Strategies Based on Efficacy and Death in Multicourse Clinical Trials
Thall, P. F., Sung, H., & Estey, E. H. (2002) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214502753479202 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Pelham, W. E., Hoza, B., Pillow, D. R., Gnagy, E. M., Kipp, H., Greiner, A. R., Waschbusch, D. A., Trane, S. T., Greenhouse, J. B., Wolfson, L. J., et al. (2002) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.70.2.320 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationWahed, A. S., & Tsiatis, A. A. (2004) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.0006-341x.2004.00160.x · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Strategies for comparing treatments on a binary response with multi-centre data
Agresti, A., & Hartzel, J. S. (2000) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(20000430)19:8 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Customizing treatment to the patient: Adaptive treatment strategies
Murphy, S. A., Collins, L. M., & Rush, A. J. (2007) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.02.001 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationCovariate-adjusted adaptive randomization in a sarcoma trial with multi-stage treatments
Thall, P. F., & Wathen, J. K. (2005) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.2077 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Variable selection for qualitative interactions
Gunter, L., Zhu, J., & Murphy, S. A. (2009) · Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1016/j.stamet.2009.05.003 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationWahed, A. S., & Tsiatis, A. A. (2006) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/93.1.163 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Thall, P. F., Logothetis, C., Pagliaro, L. C., Wen, S., Brown, M. A., Williams, D., & Millikan, R. E. (2007) · JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute · doi:10.1093/jnci/djm189 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Connell, A. M. (2009) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990903005882 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Estimation of Effects of Sequential Treatments by Reparameterizing Directed Acyclic GraphsPreprint
Robins, J. M., & Wasserman, L. (2013) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1302.1566 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Statistical Methodology for a SMART Design in the Development of Adaptive Treatment Strategies
Oetting, A. I., & Levy, J. A. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199754649.003.0013 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Orellana, L., Rotnitzky, A., & Robins, J. M. (2010) · The International Journal of Biostatistics · doi:10.2202/1557-4679.1242 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Examining clinical judgment in an adaptive intervention design: The fast track program.
Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., Maples, J. J., & Murphy, S. A. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.3.468 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationGoal setting, evaluation, learning and revision: A dynamic modeling approach
Barlas, Y., & Yasarcan, H. (2006) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2005.08.003 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Adaptation of career goals to self and opportunities in early adolescence
Hirschi, A., & Vondracek, F. W. (2009) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2009.05.005 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Randomization in substance abuse clinical trials
Hedden, S. L., Woolson, R. F., & Malcolm, R. J. (2006) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/1747-597x-1-6 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Adaptive Interventions in Drug Court
Marlowe, D. B., Festinger, D. S., Arabia, P. L., Dugosh, K. L., Benasutti, K. M., Croft, J. R., & McKay, J. R. (2008) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/0734016808320325 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Moore, R. G., & Blackburn, I. (1997) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465800018543 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Cole, M. B. (1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Nahum-Shani I Qian M Pelham WE Gnagy B Fabiano G Waxmonsky J Murphy SA Experimental design and primary data analysis methods for comparing adaptive interventions 2010 Manuscript submitted for publication. PMC3825557 23025433
- Shani G A training approach to bridge the gap between wizards and macro uses when working with computers (Unpublished masters thesis) 2007 Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Technion: Israel Institute of Technology
- Wu CFJ Hamada M Experiments: Planning, analysis and parameter design optimization 2000 New York, NY Wiley
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nahum-Shani, I., Smith, S. N., Spring, B. J., Collins, L. M., Witkiewitz, K., Tewari, A., & Murphy, S. A. (2018) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9830-8 · Cited by 2,171 · see citing works
Self-citationA "SMART" Design for Building Individualized Treatment Sequences
Lei, H., Nahum-Shani, I., Lynch, K., Oslin, D., & Murphy, S. A. (2012) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143152 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Self-citationBurke, L. E., Ma, J., Azar, K. M. J., Bennett, G. G., Peterson, E. D., Zheng, Y., Riley, W., Stephens, J., Shah, S. H., Suffoletto, B., et al. (2015) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000000232 · Cited by 516 · see citing works
An Overview of Research and Evaluation Designs for Dissemination and Implementation
Brown, C. H., Curran, G., Palinkas, L. A., Aarons, G. A., Wells, K. B., Jones, L., Collins, L. M., Duan, N., Mittman, B. S., Wallace, A., et al. (2017) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044215 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Almirall, D., Nahum-Shani, I., Sherwood, N. E., & Murphy, S. A. (2014) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13142-014-0265-0 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Self-citationExperimental and quasi-experimental designs in implementation research
Miller, C. J., Smith, S. N., & Pugatch, M. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.06.027 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
“Researchers interested in optimizing sequences of implementation strategies that adapt to ongoing needs over time may be interested in a variant of factorial designs known as the sequential, multiple-assignment randomized trial (SMART; Almirall et al., 2012; Collins et al., 2014b; Kilbourne et al., 2014b; Lei et al.,…”
BackgroundAnnual Research Review: Building a science of personalized intervention for youth mental health
Ng, M. Y., & Weisz, J. R. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12470 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Pérez, D., Van der Stuyft, P., Zabala, M. D. C., Castro, M., & Lefèvre, P. (2015) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/s13012-016-0457-8 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“In restrictive definitions, adaptations are limited to tailoring interventions to local contexts and circumstances [5, 19, 20].”
BackgroundPelham, W. E., Fabiano, G. A., Waxmonsky, J. G., Greiner, A. R., Gnagy, E. M., Pelham, W. E., Coxe, S., Verley, J., Bhatia, I., Hart, K., et al. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1105138 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Self-citationMobile Tele-Mental Health: Increasing Applications and a Move to Hybrid Models of Care
Chan, S., Torous, J., Hinton, L., & Yellowlees, P. (2014) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare2020220 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Czyz, E. K., King, C. A., Prouty, D., Micol, V. J., Walton, M., & Nahum‐Shani, I. (2021) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13383 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationToward Usable Evidence: Optimizing Knowledge Accumulation in HCI Research on Health Behavior Change
Klasnja, P., Hekler, E. B., Korinek, E. V., Harlow, J., & Mishra, S. R. (2017) · Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3025453.3026013 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
SMARTer Approach to Personalizing Intervention for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Kasari, C., Sturm, A., & Shih, W. (2018) · Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2018_jslhr-l-rsaut-18-0029 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Mobile self-help interventions as augmentation therapy for patients with anorexia nervosa
Kim, Y.-R., Cardi, V., Lee, G. Y., An, S., Kim, J., Kwon, G., Kim, J. W., Eom, J.-S., & Treasure, J. (2019) · Telemedicine and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2018.0180 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Melisse, B., van den Berg, E., & de Beurs, E. (2024) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.24079 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Badger, T., Segrin, C., Crane, T. E., Chalasani, P., Arslan, W., Hadeed, M., Cunicelli, N., Given, C. W., & Sikorskii, A. (2026) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-024-01723-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nahum-Shani, I., Qian, M., Almirall, D., Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, B., Fabiano, G. A., Waxmonsky, J. G., Yu, J., & Murphy, S. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- Florida International University (US)
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Methods
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 457-477
- ISSN
- 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1463
- PMC
- PMC3825557
- OpenAlex
- W2162512884
- Cited by
- 298
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 15.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (P50DA010075, DA12414)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA11873)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH069614, MH080015)
- Institute of Education Sciences (R324B060045; LO3000665A)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Keywords
- adaptive interventions, sequential multiple assignment randomized trial, decision rules, intervention dosage, experimental design, data analysis methods, intervention development, social and behavioral sciences
- MeSH terms
- Behavioral Sciences, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Research Design, Social Sciences, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
