Neuropsychological functioning and severity of ADHD in early childhood: A four-year cross-lagged study.
Open accessAbstract
Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have poorer neuropsychological functioning relative to their typically developing peers. However, it is unclear whether early neuropsychological functioning predicts later ADHD severity and/or the latter is longitudinally associated with subsequent neuropsychological functioning; and whether these relations are different in children with and without early symptoms of ADHD. This study aimed to examine the longitudinal associations between ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning among children at high and low risk of developing ADHD. Hyperactive/Inattentive (H/I; n = 140) and Typically developing (TD; n = 76) preschoolers (age 3-4 years) were recruited (BL) and followed annually for 3 years (F1, F2, and F3). Teachers rated the children's ADHD severity and impairment using the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 and the Children's Problem Checklist, respectively. Parent reports of children's ADHD severity were obtained using the Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia - Present and Lifetime version. Neuropsychological functioning was assessed using the NEPSY. In the full sample, there were bidirectional longitudinal associations between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity between F1 and F3. Among H/I children, neuropsychological functioning at F1 and F2 predicted ADHD severity at F2 and F3, respectively. In contrast, among TD children the only significant relationship observed was that elevated ADHD symptoms at F2 were associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning at F3. Improved neuropsychological functioning may attenuate ADHD symptoms and associated impairment among H/I children during the early school years. Interventions designed to improve neuropsychological functioning among young H/I children may be beneficial in reducing their ADHD severity.
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- Findingown data
In the full sample, neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity were bidirectionally associated across the F1-to-F3 period.
“In the full sample, there were bi-directional longitudinal associations between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity between F1 and F3.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“There were significant cross-lagged relations between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity between F1 and F2, and between F2 and F3.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This model [χ2 (df)= 356.93(241); p<.001; χ2/df ratio = 1.48; CFI= .96; RMSEA=.05] showed significant cross-paths between ADHD symptom severity and neuropsychological functioning, and vice versa at each time-point.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Among H/I children, neuropsychological functioning at F2 predicted ADHD severity at F3.
“Among H/I children (Figure 2A), F1 and F2 neuropsychological functioning were associated with F2 and F3 ADHD severity (β=−.22 and −.23 respectively; p<.05), respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among TD children, the only significant cross-lagged path was that greater ADHD severity at F2 predicted worse neuropsychological functioning at F3.
“Among TD children (Figure 2B), the only cross-lagged path that attained significance was that greater ADHD severity at F2 was associated with subsequently worse neuropsychological functioning at F3 (β= −.29; p<.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There were significant inverse correlations between NEPSY domains and ADHD symptoms and impairment.
“There were several significant inverse correlations between NEPSY domains and ADHD symptoms and impairment (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Among H/I children, greater ADHD severity at F2 predicted worse neuropsychological functioning at F3.
“Elevated ADHD severity at F2 was associated with subsequently worse neuropsychological functioning at F3 (β= −.16; p<.05).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Paths explained 4%, 37%, and 42% of the variance in ADHD severity at F1, F2, and F3, respectively.
“Similarly, paths leading up to ADHD severity explained 4% (F1), 37% (F2), and 42% (F3) of the variance in ADHD severity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among H/I children, neuropsychological functioning at F1 predicted ADHD severity at F2.
“Among H/I children (Figure 2A), F1 and F2 neuropsychological functioning were associated with F2 and F3 ADHD severity (β=−.22 and −.23 respectively; p<.05), respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Family SES was associated with ADHD severity and NEPSY scores at most time points.
“Family SES was associated with ADHD severity and NEPSY scores at most time points in expected directions (r-range: .01 to .28; p-range .86 to <.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There were no cross-lagged associations between ages 3-4 and 4-5 years.
“Notably, there were no cross-lagged associations between the ages of 3–4 and 4–5 years.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The average change in standardized paths due to imputation of NEPSY at follow-up 3 was less than 0.02.
“The mean change in the standardized paths in the model-based analyses as a result of imputation of NEPSY at F3 was <.02 (Table 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among H/I children, baseline IQ was not significantly related to ADHD severity.
“Among H/I children, BL IQ was significantly associated with Neuropsychological functioning at F1 (β =.60; p<.001) but not with ADHD severity (β =−.09; p=.35).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In H/I children, after IQ was included, neuropsychological functioning at follow-up 1 was not significantly related to ADHD severity at follow-up 2.
“As a result of inclusion of IQ, Neuropsychological functioning at F1 was not significantly associated with ADHD severity at F2 (β =−.17; p=.10) and SES was no longer significantly associated with ADHD or NEPSY.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Among children in the high-risk/impulsive (H/I) group, baseline IQ was significantly related to neuropsychological functioning at follow-up 1.
“Among H/I children, BL IQ was significantly associated with Neuropsychological functioning at F1 (β =.60; p<.001) but not with ADHD severity (β =−.09; p=.35).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The post hoc multi-group model that included IQ had acceptable fit to the data.
“This model showed acceptable fit to the data (Chi square[526]=692.76; p<.001; Chi square/df ratio=1.32; CFI=.93; RMSEA=.04).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Among TD children, there were no associations between changes in neuropsychological functioning and later ADHD severity.
“There were no associations between changes in neuropsychological functioning and later ADHD severity among TD children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among typically developing (TD) children, IQ was significantly related to neuropsychological functioning at follow-up 1.
“Among TD children too, IQ was significantly associated with F1 Neuropsychological functioning (β=.61; p<.001) and marginally associated with ADHD severity (β= −.23; p=.06).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In H/I children, after IQ was included, socioeconomic status was no longer significantly related to ADHD.
“As a result of inclusion of IQ, Neuropsychological functioning at F1 was not significantly associated with ADHD severity at F2 (β =−.17; p=.10) and SES was no longer significantly associated with ADHD or NEPSY.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There were significant differences between the H/I and TD groups.
“Further, there were significant differences between the H/I and TD groups, suggesting that the neurobehavioral trajectory in children at-risk for ADHD may be different from their TD peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the full sample, ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning had an inverse, reciprocal, longitudinal association after age 4-5 years.
“In the overall sample, there was an inverse, reciprocal, longitudinal association between ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning after the age of 4–5 years.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Within the H/I group, greater ADHD severity at age 5-6 was associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning at age 6-7.
“Although of lesser magnitude, within that same group, greater ADHD severity at 5–6 years was associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning at 6–7 years, suggesting that entry into formal school may be the time that the association between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity becomes reciprocal, possibly leading to worse outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the H/I group, improvement in neuropsychological functioning was associated with a later decrease in ADHD severity.
“In the H/I group, improved neuropsychological functioning was associated with a subsequent diminution of ADHD severity, providing convincing support for the hypothesis that more optimal neural development is associated with a reduction of symptoms within that age-range; conversely, less optimal neurodevelopment may portend worse symptom presentation during early childhood (Giedd et al., 2010; Halp”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The association between ADHD severity at age 5-6 and neuropsychological functioning one year later was also found in TD children.
“This latter association between ADHD severity at 5–6 years and neuropsychological functioning a year later was also observed in TD children, suggesting that even modest expressions of ADHD among TD children might portend poorer neuropsychological functioning a year later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In H/I children, after IQ was included, socioeconomic status was no longer significantly related to NEPSY scores.
“As a result of inclusion of IQ, Neuropsychological functioning at F1 was not significantly associated with ADHD severity at F2 (β =−.17; p=.10) and SES was no longer significantly associated with ADHD or NEPSY.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The multi-group model exhibited good fit.
“The multi-group model (Figure 2) exhibited good fit [χ2 (df)= 612.99(482); p<.001; χ2/df ratio = 1.27; CFI= .94; RMSEA=.04].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The full-sample cross-lagged model showed acceptable fit.
“The cross-lagged model including the full sample (Figure 1) showed acceptable fit [χ2(df)= 785.05(437); p<.001; χ2/df ratio = 1.79; CFI= .92; RMSEA=.06].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The study used prospective longitudinal data from multiple sources, including parent report, teacher report, and laboratory assessment.
“This study used prospective longitudinal data from multiple sources including parent and teacher report and laboratory assessment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Retention rates at F1, F2, and F3 were 87.04%, 81.50%, and 73.61%, respectively.
“Retention rates at F1, F2, and F3 were 87.04%, 81.50% and 73.61%, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Because the H/I group had lower baseline socioeconomic status than the TD group, causal inferences about socioeconomic status effects on neuropsychological functioning are not possible.
“However, given that the H/I group evidenced lower SES at BL than the TD group, it is not possible to make causal inferences about the impact of SES on neuropsychological functioning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Attrition analysis showed only age at baseline was associated with presence/absence of NEPSY data at F3.
“Out of 48 contrasts, only age of the child at BL was associated with the presence/absence of data on NEPSY at F3 (Mean[SD] with and without data, respectively: 4.18[.51] vs. 4.42[.39] years; F (1,214) =14.89; p<.001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The study's analyses appear robust to imputation of missing data.
“Given that the results remained substantially the same with and without imputation, our analyses appear robust to the imputation of missing data.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Over a 4- to 5-year period, there is a close association between neuropsychological and behavioral trajectories in H/I preschool children.
“and we found over a 4- to 5-year period, a close association between neuropsychological and behavioral trajectories in hyperactive/inattentive (H/I) preschool children (Rajendran et al., in press).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rajendran et al., in press
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Neuroimaging data from children with ADHD show delays across much of the neocortex rather than in a specific region.
“Finally, neuroimaging data from ADHD children indicate delays throughout much of the neocortex, rather than a specific region (Shaw et al., 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shaw et al., 2006
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The neurobehavioral trajectory of children at risk for ADHD may differ from that of TD peers.
“Further, there were significant differences between the H/I and TD groups, suggesting that the neurobehavioral trajectory in children at-risk for ADHD may be different from their TD peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Existing correlational studies cannot provide data on the longitudinal relations between neural/neurocognitive development and behavioral change over time.
“and existing correlational studies cannot provide data regarding the longitudinal relations between neural/neurocognitive development and behavioral change over time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Interventions aimed at improving neuropsychological functioning in young children with elevated ADHD symptoms may help mitigate the disorder's adverse long-term course.
“Although further research needs to consider genetic and environmental factors that may bring about changes in neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity, our findings suggest that interventions directed towards improving neuropsychological functioning in young children with elevated ADHD symptoms (Halperin et al., 2012; Tamm et al., 2012) may have the potential to mitigate the adverse long”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Halperin et al., 2012
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- cites Tamm et al., 2012
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- Premisecitation
The NEPSY may be best represented as a single factor rather than as distinct, uncorrelated domains.
“Second, though some research has suggested a variable number of factors of the NEPSY based on age (Mosconi, Nelson, & Hooper, 2008), other research has found that the NEPSY may be best conceptualized as single factor rather than as unique and uncorrelated domains (Stinnett, Oehler-Stinnett, Fuqua, & Palmer, 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Stinnett, Oehler-Stinnett, Fuqua, & Palmer, 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Less optimal neurodevelopment may predict worse symptom presentation in early childhood.
“In the H/I group, improved neuropsychological functioning was associated with a subsequent diminution of ADHD severity, providing convincing support for the hypothesis that more optimal neural development is associated with a reduction of symptoms within that age-range; conversely, less optimal neurodevelopment may portend worse symptom presentation during early childhood (Giedd et al., 2010; Halp”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Giedd et al., 2010
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- cites Halperin et al., 2006
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- cites Shaw et al., 2007
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- Study design and conductown data
Other paths in the post hoc model were consistent with the model without medication treatment.
“Other paths in the model were consistent with what was observed in the model without medication treatment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
IQ differed between TD and H/I children.
“Although IQ differed between the TD and H/I children, this was not included in the primary analyses because cognitive deficits may be a part of the profile of a neurodevelopmental disorder such as ADHD (Frazier et al., 2004) and adding it as a covariate may produce overcorrected and inconsistent findings (Dennis et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Even modest ADHD expressions among TD children might predict poorer neuropsychological functioning one year later.
“This latter association between ADHD severity at 5–6 years and neuropsychological functioning a year later was also observed in TD children, suggesting that even modest expressions of ADHD among TD children might portend poorer neuropsychological functioning a year later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Simultaneous tests of cross-lagged associations between ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning over time among TD and H/I children have not been conducted.
“Unfortunately, simultaneous tests of cross-lagged associations between ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning over time among TD and H/I children have not been conducted”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The study included an impairment measure that is required for diagnosis but is often absent from studies of severity change.
“It included a measure of impairment which is required for diagnosis but not often included in studies assessing changes in severity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
In the post hoc model, medication treatment was not a significant confounder for the longitudinal relations between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity among H/I children.
“While F1 ADHD severity was associated with greater likelihood of F2 medication treatment (β=.24; p<.01), and medication treatment at F1 was associated with medication treatment at F2 (β=.50; p<.001), no other paths from or to medication treatment were significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisenone given
The extent to which variability in neural or neurocognitive development directly influences the trajectory of ADHD or vice versa has not been systematically evaluated.
“Thus, the extent to which variability in neural or neurocognitive development directly influences the trajectory of ADHD or vice versa has not been systematically evaluated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The constrained multi-group model fit was acceptable.
“The fit of this model was: χ2 (510) = 678.35; p<.001; χ2/df ratio=1.33; CFI= .93; RMSEA=.04.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Data were considered missing at random (MAR).
“Thus, data were considered to be missing at random (MAR).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Changes in global executive functioning and response inhibition, but not all executive function measures, predicted changes in ADHD symptom severity in women with childhood ADHD.
“Further, using dimensional analyses, changes in global executive functioning and response inhibition, but not all executive function measures, predicted changes in ADHD symptom severity in women with childhood ADHD (Miller, Loya, & Hinshaw, 2013)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Miller, Loya, & Hinshaw, 2013
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Improved neuropsychological functioning may attenuate ADHD symptoms and associated impairment among H/I children during the early school years.
“Improved neuropsychological functioning may attenuate ADHD symptoms and associated impairment among H/I children during the early school years.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
Using dimensional ADHD measures allowed a more nuanced assessment of changes in symptom severity over time.
“Further, the use of dimensional measures of ADHD allowed for a more nuanced assessment of variations in symptom severity over time; this is important considering that these symptoms are observed along a continuum, with those who are diagnosed having the most symptoms (Lubke, Hudziak, Derks, van Bijsterveldt, & Boomsma, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lubke, Hudziak, Derks, van Bijsterveldt, & Boomsma, 2009
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
More optimal neural development is associated with a reduction in ADHD symptoms within that age range.
“In the H/I group, improved neuropsychological functioning was associated with a subsequent diminution of ADHD severity, providing convincing support for the hypothesis that more optimal neural development is associated with a reduction of symptoms within that age-range; conversely, less optimal neurodevelopment may portend worse symptom presentation during early childhood (Giedd et al., 2010; Halp”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Giedd et al., 2010
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- cites Halperin et al., 2006
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- cites Shaw et al., 2007
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- May combine two claims. 24
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe same constructs showed significant correlations over time, with ADHD severity correlations ranging from .41 to .82.
“Finally, there were several significant correlations between the same constructs over time (e.g., ADHD severity was associated over time; r ranging from .41 to .82; all p<.001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataBaseline ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning were not significantly associated with F1 neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity, respectively.
“However, BL ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning were not significantly associated with F1 neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe TD group had lower ADHD severity and better neuropsychological functioning than the H/I group.
“The TD children had lower ADHD severity and better neuropsychological functioning (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPaths explained 7%, 62%, and 83% of the variance in neuropsychological functioning at F1, F2, and F3, respectively.
“All paths leading-up to the time-point explained 7% (F1), 62% (F2), and 83% (F3) of the variance in neuropsychological functioning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataLower baseline SES was associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning and more severe ADHD severity at F1.
“Lower BL SES was significantly associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning and with more severe ADHD severity at F1.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe only cross-lagged path that differed significantly between H/I and TD children was from neuropsychological functioning at F2 to ADHD severity at F3, which was significant in H/I but not TD.
“The only significant difference in cross-lagged paths was between neuropsychological functioning at F2 and ADHD severity at F3 (p<.05).”
- Also stated in: § Constrained Multi-Group Model and Comparison of Paths · plain
“This path was significant among H/I children but not among TD children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Constrained Multi-Group Model and Comparison of Paths · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe chi-square difference between the equal form and scale invariant models was significant, leading to rejection of equality of paths between TD and H/I children.
“The chi square difference between the equal form model and the scale invariant model was statistically significant [Difference χ2 (df) = 65.36(28); p<.01]. This led us to reject the null hypothesis of equality between the paths in the TD and H/I children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAmong TD children, IQ was marginally related to ADHD severity.
“Among TD children too, IQ was significantly associated with F1 Neuropsychological functioning (β=.61; p<.001) and marginally associated with ADHD severity (β= −.23; p=.06).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningSocioeconomic status was significantly related to neuropsychological functioning at age 4-5 years among H/I children but not TD children.
“It is notable that SES was significantly associated with neuropsychological functioning at age 4–5 years among H/I, but not TD children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataEntry into formal school may be when the association between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity becomes reciprocal, possibly leading to worse outcomes.
“Although of lesser magnitude, within that same group, greater ADHD severity at 5–6 years was associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning at 6–7 years, suggesting that entry into formal school may be the time that the association between neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity becomes reciprocal, possibly leading to worse outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataSES was included as a covariate in all analyses because of the significant group difference.
“Given the significant differences between groups on SES, this variable was included as a covariate in all analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe absence of associations in TD children may be due to their consistently low and less variable behavioral difficulties and greater temporal stability, which may have limited testing of change over time.
“This may be due to their consistently low and less variable levels of behavioral difficulties (see Table 1), as well as their greater temporal stability (see Figure 2B), which may have impeded the ability to test the impact of changes over time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenTrained evaluators who were blind to clinical data enhanced the validity of the findings and reduced reporter bias.
“The use of trained evaluators who were blind to clinical data, enhanced the validity of our findings and reducing the likelihood of reporter bias.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataIt is unclear how missing data affected the results, although supplementary analyses showed negligible impact of stochastic imputation for five NEPSY variables at follow-up 3.
“First, it is not clear how missing data affected the results, though the FIML method is most recommended (Arbuckle, 1996; Enders & Bandalos, 2001), and supplementary analyses showed negligible impact of stochastic imputation for five variables of NEPSY at F3.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Arbuckle, 1996
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- cites Enders & Bandalos, 2001
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThere were no differences between TD and H/I groups on gender, ethnicity, or race.
“There were no differences between TD and H/I groups on gender, ethnicity, or race (all p >.10).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningInterventions designed to improve neuropsychological functioning among young H/I children may be beneficial in reducing their ADHD severity.
“Interventions designed to improve neuropsychological functioning among young H/I children may be beneficial in reducing their ADHD severity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe H/I group was not limited to children meeting ADHD diagnostic criteria, which may have increased generalizability to a broader population of symptomatic children without formal diagnosis.
“An important strength of this study is that the H/I group was not restricted to those meeting diagnostic criteria for ADHD. This may have enhanced the generalizability of this group to a wider population of children who are symptomatic without necessarily meeting formal diagnostic criteria.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren with ADHD show greater anomalies in cortical and neuropsychological development and more behavioral impairments.
“However, children with ADHD show greater anomalies in cortical (Shaw et al., 2007), and neuropsychological (Frazier, Demaree, & Youngstrom, 2004; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005) development, and more behavioral impairments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Shaw et al., 2007
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- cites Frazier et al., 2004
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- cites Willcutt et al., 2005
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Study design and conductown dataThe post hoc model showed acceptable fit.
“This model showed acceptable fit [Chi square (df) =404.97(284); p<.001; χ2/df ratio= 1.43; CFI=.92; RMSEA=.05].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataUnivariate normality showed no significant skewness or kurtosis except for CPC scores for TD children, which were log transformed.
“Univariate indices of normality revealed no significant skewness or kurtosis except for scores on the CPC for TD children (skewness and kurtosis ranged from 2.13–10.30). This variable was log transformed for subsequent analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataStructural equation modeling provided a stringent test of the longitudinal association between ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning and allowed statistical comparison of paths between groups.
“Finally, SEM provided a stringent test of the longitudinal association between ADHD severity and neuropsychological functioning and made a statistical comparison of the paths between the two groups possible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe TD and H/I groups differed on family SES at baseline.
“However, although both groups were well within the middle class range, they differed on family SES (see measures below) at BL [Mean (SD) TD=69.16 (14.89); H/I= 61.28 (17.87); p=.001].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren with ADHD show deficits across many neuropsychological domains, including memory, motor, language, and visuomotor precision.
“First, ADHD children show deficits across many domains of neuropsychological functioning including memory (Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987), motor (Blondis, 1999; Steger et al., 2001), language (Purvis & Tannock, 1997; Tirosh & Cohen, 1998), and visuomotor precision (Raggio, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987
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- cites Blondis, 1999
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- cites Steger et al., 2001
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InterpretationcitationSuch knowledge could have a substantial impact on the development of early interventions focusing on enhancing neural development.
“Yet, such knowledge could have a substantial impact on the development of early interventions, particularly those focusing on enhancing neural development (Halperin et al., 2012; Tamm, Nakonezny, & Hughes, 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Halperin et al., 2012
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- cites Tamm, Nakonezny, & Hughes, 2012
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May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningNeuropsychological functioning was assessed with the NEPSY, which provided continuity of longitudinal measurement and age- and gender-specific norms for comparison with other samples.
“Additionally, neuropsychological functioning was assessed using the NEPSY, which allowed for continuity of longitudinal measurement along with age- and gender-specific norms that enable comparison to other samples of children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationADHD symptoms occur along a continuum, with diagnosed individuals having the most symptoms.
“Further, the use of dimensional measures of ADHD allowed for a more nuanced assessment of variations in symptom severity over time; this is important considering that these symptoms are observed along a continuum, with those who are diagnosed having the most symptoms (Lubke, Hudziak, Derks, van Bijsterveldt, & Boomsma, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lubke, Hudziak, Derks, van Bijsterveldt, & Boomsma, 2009
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe imputation method preserves variability and yields unbiased parameter estimates when data are MAR.
“This form of imputation preserves the variability of the data and yields unbiased parameter estimates when the data are MAR (Little & Rubin, 2002; Enders, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Little & Rubin, 2002
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- cites Enders, 2010
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PremisecitationRemission of ADHD is linked to cortical thickening coming into alignment with that of typically developing peers.
“Consistent with this developmental perspective, remission of ADHD has been linked to the extent to which cortical thickening, which is developmentally delayed in ADHD children (Shaw et al., 2007), comes into alignment with that of typically-developing (TD) peers (Giedd & Rapoport, 2010; Proal et al., 2011; Shaw et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Giedd & Rapoport, 2010
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Proal et al., 2011
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Shaw et al., 2007
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationIQ was not included in primary analyses because cognitive deficits may be part of ADHD and covarying may overcorrect.
“Although IQ differed between the TD and H/I children, this was not included in the primary analyses because cognitive deficits may be a part of the profile of a neurodevelopmental disorder such as ADHD (Frazier et al., 2004) and adding it as a covariate may produce overcorrected and inconsistent findings (Dennis et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Frazier et al., 2004
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Dennis et al., 2009
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationown dataIt is unclear whether the observed relations hold in older children, adolescents, and adults.
“Second, although we included multiple time-points across early childhood, it is unclear whether these relations hold-up in older children, adolescents and adults.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe NEPSY has poorer reliability in very young children, and some subtests differ between preschoolers and school-aged children.
“NEPSY has poorer reliability in very young children and some subtests differ between preschoolers and school-aged children (Korkman et al., 1998); these differences may have impacted our results in unmeasured ways.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Korkman et al., 1998
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe NEPSY does not measure all facets of neuropsychological functioning, and unmeasured facets could be related to ADHD severity over time.
“Further, it needs to be noted that the NEPSY does not measure all facets of neuropsychological functioning and facets which are not measured in the present study could be associated with ADHD severity over time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The cross-lagged panel model with annual measurements can identify whether neuropsychological functioning precedes or follows changes in ADHD severity.
“Cross-lagged panel analyses were conducted to elucidate whether neuropsychological development preceded or followed changes in ADHD severity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
This is the first study to examine reciprocal longitudinal relations between neuropsychological functioning and dimensionally assessed ADHD severity among children identified in preschool as high or low risk for ADHD.
“To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine reciprocal longitudinal relations between neuropsychological functioning and dimensionally-assessed ADHD severity among children identified during preschool as being at high or low risk for developing ADHD.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Longitudinal evidence provides tentative support for a developmental mediation model linking aspects of EF to ADHD.
“Longitudinal studies tentatively support a mediation model of development of aspects of EF and ADHD.17–20”
From Working Memory and Vigilance as Multivariate Endophenotypes Related to Common Genetic Risk for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (2018) · cites this paper as [18]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Multi-group model called a good fit despite missing stated cutoffs
MinorThe paper defines good fit as requiring CFI above .95 and a non-significant chi-square. It calls the multi-group model a good fit even though its CFI is .94 and its chi-square p-value is below .001.
“The multi-group model (Figure 2) exhibited good fit [χ2 (df)= 612.99(482); p<.001; χ2/df ratio = 1.27; CFI= .94; RMSEA=.04].”
“A non-significant chi square, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) >.95, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) <.08 were considered indices of good fit”
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MethodStructural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Third Edition
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BackgroundByrne, B. M. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9780203805534 · Cited by 4,016 · see citing works
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Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Faraone, S. V., Perlis, R. H., Doyle, A. E., Smoller, J. W., Goralnick, J. J., Holmgren, M. A., & Sklar, P. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.024 · Cited by 2,357 · see citing works
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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation
Shaw, P., Eckstrand, K., Sharp, W., Blumenthal, J., Lerch, J. P., Greenstein, D., Clasen, L., Evans, A., Giedd, J., & Rapoport, J. L. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0707741104 · Cited by 1,819 · cited 6× · see citing works
“…perspective, remission of ADHD has been linked to the extent to which cortical thickening, which is developmentally delayed in ADHD children (Shaw et al., 2007), comes into alignment with that of typically-developing (TD) peers (Giedd & Rapoport, 2010; Proal et al., 2011; Shaw et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential(1996) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 1,733 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Status Modifies Heritability of IQ in Young Children
Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D'Onofrio, B., & Gottesman, I. I. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x · Cited by 1,373 · see citing works
Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders
DENNIS, M., FRANCIS, D. J., CIRINO, P. T., SCHACHAR, R., BARNES, M. A., & FLETCHER, J. M. (2009) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617709090481 · Cited by 875 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2004) and adding it as a covariate may produce overcorrected and inconsistent findings (Dennis et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultStructural MRI of pediatric brain development: what have we learned and where are we going?
Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.040 · Cited by 836 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…perspective, remission of ADHD has been linked to the extent to which cortical thickening, which is developmentally delayed in ADHD children (Shaw et al., 2007), comes into alignment with that of typically-developing (TD) peers (Giedd & Rapoport, 2010; Proal et al., 2011; Shaw et al., 2007).”
BackgroundFrazier, T. W., Demaree, H. A., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2004) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.543 · Cited by 792 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Although IQ differed between the TD and H/I children, this was not included in the primary analyses because cognitive deficits may be a part of the profile of a neurodevelopmental disorder such as ADHD (Frazier et al., 2004) and adding it as a covariate may produce overcorrected and inconsistent findings (Dennis et al.”
ResultNEPSY : A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment
Dumont, R., & Willis, J. O. (2008) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470373699.speced1463 · Cited by 775 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Testretest reliability for the domains ranged from .70 to .91 (Korkman et al., 1998).”
BackgroundResultShaw, P., Lerch, J., Greenstein, D., Sharp, W., Clasen, L., Evans, A., Giedd, J., Castellanos, F. X., & Rapoport, J. (2006) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.540 · Cited by 703 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Finally, neuroimaging data from ADHD children indicate delays throughout much of the neocortex, rather than a specific region (Shaw et al., 2006).”
BackgroundNEPSY, Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment
Kreutzer, J. S., DeLuca, J., & Caplan, B. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_4835 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
Updating Occupational Prestige and Socioeconomic Scores: How the New Measures Measure up
Nakao, K., & Treas, J. (1994) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.2307/270978 · Cited by 552 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The Nakao-Treas Socioeconomic Prestige Index (SES; Nakao & Treas, 1994) was used to measure SES at BL. High scores on this index are indicative of higher SES.”
MethodAttention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Across the Lifespan
Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., & Spencer, T. J. (2002) · Annual Review of Medicine · doi:10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.103945 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
Halperin, J. M., & Schulz, K. P. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.560 · Cited by 446 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Yet, the manner and extent to which such phenotypes are expressed throughout development is, to a considerable degree, determined by postnatal factors that continue to influence neural development (Halperin & Schulz, 2006; Halperin et al., 2012; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMolecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Faraone, S. V., & Mick, E. (2010) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2009.12.004 · Cited by 411 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Research into the causes of ADHD provides compelling evidence for a substantial role of genes in the emergence (Faraone et al., 2005) and persistence (Larsson, Larsson, & Lichtenstein, 2004) of these maladaptive behaviors.”
BackgroundSonuga‐Barke, E. J. S., & Halperin, J. M. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02195.x · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Self-citationPurvis, K. L., & Tannock, R. (1997) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1025731529006 · Cited by 277 · cited 1× · see citing works
“First, ADHD children show deficits across many domains of neuropsychological functioning including memory (Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987), motor (Blondis, 1999; Steger et al., 2001), language (Purvis & Tannock, 1997; Tirosh & Cohen, 1998), and visuomotor precision (Raggio, 1999).”
BackgroundMeasured gene-by-environment interaction in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Nigg, J., Nikolas, M., & Burt, S. A. (2010) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.01.025 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Halperin, J. M., Trampush, J. W., Miller, C. J., Marks, D. J., & Newcorn, J. H. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01926.x · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Self-citationEnvironmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans
Farah, M. J., Betancourt, L., Shera, D. M., Savage, J. H., Giannetta, J. M., Brodsky, N. L., Malmud, E. K., & Hurt, H. (2008) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00688.x · Cited by 239 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, given that cortical development is highly sensitive to environmental stimulation (Farah et al., 2008; Halperin & Healey, 2011), diminished environmental stimulation due to inattentiveness among children with ADHD may be associated with attenuated cortical development.”
BackgroundBirnbaum, H. G., Kessler, R. C., Lowe, S. W., Secnik, K., Greenberg, P. E., Leong, S. A., & Swensen, A. R. (2005) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1185/030079904x20303 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Halperin, J. M., & Healey, D. M. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.006 · Cited by 237 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, given that cortical development is highly sensitive to environmental stimulation (Farah et al., 2008; Halperin & Healey, 2011), diminished environmental stimulation due to inattentiveness among children with ADHD may be associated with attenuated cortical development.”
BackgroundSelf-citationFischer, M., Barkley, R. A., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2005) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2701_5 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Proal, E. (2011) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.117 · Cited by 207 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…perspective, remission of ADHD has been linked to the extent to which cortical thickening, which is developmentally delayed in ADHD children (Shaw et al., 2007), comes into alignment with that of typically-developing (TD) peers (Giedd & Rapoport, 2010; Proal et al., 2011; Shaw et al., 2007).”
BackgroundLongitudinal measurement models in evaluation research: Examining stability and change
Pitts, S. C., West, S. G., & Tein, J. (1996) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/s0149-7189(96)00027-4 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Larsson, J., Larsson, H., & Lichtenstein, P. (2004) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000135622.05219.bf · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Maternal Ratings of Attention Problems in ADHD: Evidence for the Existence of a Continuum
Lubke, G. H., Hudziak, J. J., Derks, E. M., van Bijsterveldt, T. C. E. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2009) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e3181ba3dbb · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Across the continuum of attention skills: a twin study of the SWAN ADHD rating scale
Polderman, T. J. C., Derks, E. M., Hudziak, J. J., Verhulst, F. C., Danielle Posthuma, B., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01783.x · Cited by 171 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Given that ADHD symptoms exist on a continuum (Lubke, Hudziak, Derks, van Bijsterveldt, & Boomsma, 2009; Polderman et al., 2007) it is possible that changes in neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity are associated in both H/I and TD children.”
BackgroundSeparate verbal memory and naming deficits in attention deficit disorder and reading disability
Felton, R. H., Wood, F., Brown, I. S., Campbell, S. K., & Harter, M. R. (1987) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(87)90067-8 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Language Deficit With Attention-Deficit Disorder: A Prevalent Comorbidity
Tirosh, E., & Cohen, A. (1998) · Journal of Child Neurology · doi:10.1177/088307389801301005 · Cited by 165 · cited 1× · see citing works
“First, ADHD children show deficits across many domains of neuropsychological functioning including memory (Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987), motor (Blondis, 1999; Steger et al., 2001), language (Purvis & Tannock, 1997; Tirosh & Cohen, 1998), and visuomotor precision (Raggio, 1999).”
BackgroundPreventive Interventions for ADHD: A Neurodevelopmental Perspective
Halperin, J. M., Bedard, A., & Curchack, J. T. (2012) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0123-z · Cited by 151 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Although further research needs to consider genetic and environmental factors that may bring about changes in neuropsychological functioning and ADHD severity, our findings suggest that interventions directed towards improving neuropsychological functioning in young children with elevated ADHD symptoms (Halperin et al…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDoes neurocognitive functioning predict future or persistence of ADHD? A systematic review
van Lieshout, M., Luman, M., Buitelaar, J., Rommelse, N. N. J., & Oosterlaan, J. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.02.003 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Schulz, K. P., Newcorn, J. H., Fan, J., Tang, C. Y., & Halperin, J. M. (2004) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000145551.26813.f9 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationAn Open Trial of a Metacognitive Executive Function Training for Young Children With ADHD
Tamm, L., Nakonezny, P. A., & Hughes, C. W. (2014) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712445782 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Attentional and neuromotor deficits in ADHD
Steger, J., Imhof, K., Coutts, E., Gundelfinger, R., Steinhausen, H. C., & Brandeis, D. (2001) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1017/s0012162201000330 · Cited by 95 · cited 1× · see citing works
“First, ADHD children show deficits across many domains of neuropsychological functioning including memory (Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987), motor (Blondis, 1999; Steger et al., 2001), language (Purvis & Tannock, 1997; Tirosh & Cohen, 1998), and visuomotor precision (Raggio, 1999).”
BackgroundAttentional versus motor inhibition in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Carr, L. A., Nigg, J. T., & Henderson, J. M. (2006) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.4.430 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Clerkin, S. M., Schulz, K. P., Berwid, O. G., Fan, J., Newcorn, J. H., Tang, C. Y., & Halperin, J. M. (2013) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12070880 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationMotor disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Blondis, T. A. (1999) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0031-3955(05)70162-0 · Cited by 60 · cited 1× · see citing works
“First, ADHD children show deficits across many domains of neuropsychological functioning including memory (Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987), motor (Blondis, 1999; Steger et al., 2001), language (Purvis & Tannock, 1997; Tirosh & Cohen, 1998), and visuomotor precision (Raggio, 1999).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Impairment Criteria on Rates of ADHD Diagnoses in Preschoolers
Healey, D. M., Miller, C. J., Castelli, K., Marks, D. J., & Halperin, J. M. (2008) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9209-1 · Cited by 59 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Internal consistency in the normative sample was .70 and stability at 6-month follow-up was .69 (Healey et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRelation Between Outcomes on a Continuous Performance Test and ADHD Symptoms Over Time
Vaughn, A. J., Epstein, J. N., Rausch, J., Altaye, M., Langberg, J. M., Newcorn, J. H., Hinshaw, S. P., Hechtman, L., Arnold, L. E., Swanson, J. M., et al. (2011) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9501-y · Cited by 57 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…Fan, Tang, & Halperin, 2005) data suggest that adolescents and young adults in whom childhood ADHD has largely remitted are more similar to their TD peers than those whose ADHD symptoms have persisted (but see van Lieshout, Luman, Buitelaar, Rommelse, & Oosterlaan, 2013; Vaughn et al., 2011).”
BackgroundRajendran, K., Trampush, J. W., Rindskopf, D. M., Marks, D. J., O’Neill, S. C., & Halperin, J. M. (2013) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12101360 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationPerceptual and Motor Inhibition in Adolescents/Young Adults with Childhood-Diagnosed ADHD
Bédard, A., Trampush, J. W., Newcorn, J., & Halperin, J. (2010) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0018752 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationMiller, M. R., Loya, F., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12074 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Marks, D. J., Mlodnicka, A., Bernstein, M., Chacko, A., Rose, S., & Halperin, J. M. (2008) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn112 · Cited by 40 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Developing an understanding of factors that lower the severity of ADHD and enhance cognitive functioning is highly beneficial considering the high cost of ADHD (Birnbaum et al., 2005; Marks et al., 2009) and the difficulties observed throughout the lifespan (Wilens, Biederman, & Spencer, 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-citationExamination of the Underlying Structure of the NEPSY: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment
Stinnett, T. A., Oehler-Stinnett, J., Fuqua, D. R., & Palmer, L. S. (2002) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/073428290202000105 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Visuomotor Perception in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-Combined Type
Raggio, D. J. (1999) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1999.88.2.448 · Cited by 37 · cited 2× · see citing works
“First, ADHD children show deficits across many domains of neuropsychological functioning including memory (Felton, Wood, Brown, Campbell, & Harter, 1987), motor (Blondis, 1999; Steger et al., 2001), language (Purvis & Tannock, 1997; Tirosh & Cohen, 1998), and visuomotor precision (Raggio, 1999).”
BackgroundConfirmatory Factor Analysis of the Nepsy for Younger and Older School-Age Children
Mosconi, M. W., Nelson, L. M., & Hooper, S. R. (2008) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.102.3.861-866 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Visser, J. C., Rommelse, N. N. J., Greven, C. U., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.019 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Shephard, E., Zuccolo, P. F., Idrees, I., Godoy, P. B. G., Salomone, E., Ferrante, C., Sorgato, P., Catão, L. F. C. C., Goodwin, A., Bolton, P., et al. (2021) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.03.016 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
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Halperin, J. M., & Marks, D. J. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13014 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationSorge, G. B., Toplak, M. E., & Bialystok, E. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12408 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Halperin, J. M., Berwid, O. G., & O’Neill, S. (2014) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.005 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
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Flouri, E., Papachristou, E., Midouhas, E., Ploubidis, G. B., Lewis, G., & Joshi, H. E. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.12.005 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Nejati, V., & Derakhshan, Z. (2021) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2021.1912600 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Neurocognitive Predictors of ADHD Outcome: a 6-Year Follow-up Study
van Lieshout, M., Luman, M., Twisk, J. W. R., Faraone, S. V., Heslenfeld, D. J., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., Rommelse, N. N. J., et al. (2016) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0175-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Breaux, R. P., Griffith, S. F., & Harvey, E. A. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0140-1 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Rajendran et al. (2013) found that, among children with ADHD, neuropsychological functioning at age 3–4 and at age 4–5 predicted ADHD severity at ages 5–6 and 6–7.”
Nejati, V., Alavi, M. M., & Nitsche, M. A. (2021) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.05.008 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Faedda, N., Romani, M., Rossetti, S., Vigliante, M., Pezzuti, L., Cardona, F., & Guidetti, V. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12562 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
O’Hara, V. M., Curran, J. L., & Browne, N. T. (2020) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-020-00410-0 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Ventral striatal regulation of CREM mediates impulsive action and drug addiction vulnerability
Miller, M. L., Ren, Y., Szutorisz, H., Warren, N. A., Tessereau, C., Egervári, G., Mlodnicka, A., Kapoor, M., Chaarani, B., Morris, C. V., et al. (2017) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2017.80 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationSchwörer, M. C., Reinelt, T., Petermann, F., & Petermann, U. (2020) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-019-02394-4 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“However, deficits in EF have been related to ADHD symptom severity [30] and especially the development of more severe ADHD symptoms during childhood [31].”
Backgroundvan Lieshout, M., Luman, M., Schweren, L., Twisk, J. W. R., Faraone, S. V., Heslenfeld, D. J., Hartman, C. A., Hoekstra, P. J., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., et al. (2018) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0449-z · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…the predictive value of neurocognitive deficits in preschool children showed that early neurocognitive deficits predicted the onset of ADHD in (younger) childhood (Pauli-Pott and Becker 2011; Rajendran et al. 2013a, b; van Lieshout et al. 2013) or ADHD symptoms in adolescence (Sjöwall et al. 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialExplicating the “Developmental” in Preschool Psychopathology
Bufferd, S. J., Dyson, M. W., Hernandez, I. G., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy305 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Machine Learning Prediction of ADHD Severity: Association and Linkage to ADGRL3 , DRD4 , and SNAP25
Cervantes-Henríquez, M. L., Acosta-López, J. E., Martinez, A. F., Arcos‐Burgos, M., Rozo, P. J. P., & Velez, J. I. (2021) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547211015426 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“, 2013) ADHD severity, and parenting problems (Anastopoulos et al., 1992; Faraone & Larsson, 2019; Graziano et al., 2011; PalaciosCruz et al., 2014; Rajendran et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultFrick, M. A., & Brocki, K. (2019) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2019.1641185 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“A possible explanation for the differing results may be that the effect of parenting on self-regulation is stronger for typically developing children, and that the effect of cognitive regulation is stronger in clinical groups (Rajendran et al., 2013).”
ResultRETRACTED: Universal Design for Learning for Children with ADHD
Frolli, A., Cerciello, F., Esposito, C., Ricci, M., Laccone, R., & Bisogni, F. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10081350 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
RetractedPauli‐Pott, U., Schloß, S., Heinzel‐Gutenbrunner, M., & Becker, K. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2017.1380177 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Rajendran et al. (2013) found that overall neuropsychological functioning (the measure included executive functioning besides other cognitive andmotor functions) predicted ADHD symptom development between the ages of 4/5 and 6/7 years.”
BackgroundCognitive Profiling Useful for Unraveling Cross-Disorder Mechanisms
Rommelse, N. N. J., van der Meer, J. M. J., Hartman, C. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616638826 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In contrast, among typically developing children, elevated ADHD symptoms at earlier time points were associated with poorer neuropsychological functioning at a later time (Rajendran et al., 2013).”
BackgroundRizeq, J., Flora, D. B., & Toplak, M. E. (2017) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1317034 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“…in both clinical and nonclinical samples (Barkley, 1997; Brydges, Ozolnieks, & Roberts, 2015; Diamond & Lee, 2011; Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000; Hofmann, Schmeichel, & Baddeley, 2012; Rajendran et al., 2013; Rose, Feldman, Jankowski, & Van Rossem, 2011; van Lieshout et al., 2016).”
Becker, S. P., Dvorsky, M. R., Tamm, L., & Willoughby, M. T. (2021) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00728-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Cervantes-Henríquez, M. L., Acosta-López, J. E., Ahmad, M., Sánchez-Rojas, M., Jiménez‐Figueroa, G., Pineda‐Alhucema, W., Martínez-Banfi, M. L., Noguera-Machacón, L. M., Mejía-Segura, E., Hoz, M. D. L., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11070854 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Furthermore, these variants could also be used for developing predictive models, based on machine learning and artificial intelligence [182–184], for ADHD diagnosis and the identification of severe ADHD cases [97,115,120,185] in the clinical setting.”
BackgroundCruz, J. S., & Becerra-Arcos, J. P. (2023) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2023.2166939 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Preschoolers with low levels of executive functions show severe attentional problems during adolescence (Rajendran et al., 2013, 2013).”
BackgroundBerni, M., Scatigna, S., Igliozzi, R., Mazzotti, S., Calderoni, S., Martinelli, A., Tancredi, R., Guzzetta, A., & Pecini, C. (2025) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-025-09683-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
ADHS im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Update 2020
Popow, C., & Ohmann, S. (2020) · Pädiatrie & Pädologie · doi:10.1007/s00608-020-00789-y · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Die Persistenz der Probleme wird vorwiegend durch den sozialen und ökonomischen Hintergrund sowie den Schweregrad der kognitiven Beeinträchtigung bestimmt [171].”
BackgroundSeikku, T., Saarelainen, T., Kuha, T., Maasalo, K., Huhdanpää, H., & Aronen, E. T. (2023) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-023-01635-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Several studies (e.g., [13, 14, 34] have compared groups of children with clinical levels of symptoms to groups of children with subclinical symptoms, but the samples are still community-based.”
Predictors of Quality of Life and Symptom Severity in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Lemes, P. (2017) · International Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation Journal · doi:10.15406/ipmrj.2017.01.00030 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Improvements in neuropsychological performance are associated with decreased ADHD symptom severity [33].”
BackgroundKühl, E., Geeraerts, S. B., Deković, M., Schoemaker, K., Bunte, T. L., Espy, K. A., & Matthys, W. (2021) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2021.1995736 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Perfil desenvolvimental das funções executivas utilizando o NEPSY-II em crianças de 5 a 8 anos
Barros, P. M., Metta, L., Peralba, C. T., Vilar, C. B., Guerra, A. B., de Paula, A. P., Argollo, N., & Hazin, I. (2016) · Revista Neuropsicologia Latinoamericana · doi:10.5579/rnl.2016.0295 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Executive function and spatial abilities in physically active children: an explorative study
Passarello, N., Turriziani, P., Lucidi, F., & Mandolesi, L. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01785-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The NEPSY-II is a commonly used assessment paper and pencil tool for evaluating executive functions in children and preadolescents [18, 19].”
MethodIntervención integral en un niño con epilepsia y síntomas de déficits de atención con hiperactividad
Martínez‐González, A. E., López, M. D. M., & García, I. M. A. (2014) · Escritos de Psicología / Psychological Writings · doi:10.5231/psy.writ.2014.1111
Zapatero, I. P., Cristóbal, P. S., & Barba, R. J. (2024) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2024.2419493
van der Meer, J. M. J. (2014) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University)
- Authors
- Rajendran, K., Rindskopf, D., O'Neill, S., Marks, D. J., Nomura, Y., & Halperin, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Ohio University Zanesville (US)
- The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
- NYU Langone Health (US)
- Queens College, CUNY (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 2013-11
- Volume
- 122
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1179-1188
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- PMC
- PMC4980645
- OpenAlex
- W2331863521
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 9 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 3.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH068286)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, ADHD symptom severity, neuropsychological performance, early childhood, preschool children, longitudinal associations, bidirectional relationship, cognitive impairment, early intervention
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, New York City, Predictive Value of Tests, Prospective Studies, Severity of Illness Index
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