Cited by 699Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsMind wandering and attentionReligion, Spirituality, and Psychology

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Investigating the phenomenological matrix of mindfulness-related practices from a neurocognitive perspective.

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Lutz, Antoine, Jha, Amishi P., Dunne, John D., Saron, Clifford D.·2015·American Psychologist

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Abstract

There has been a great increase in literature concerned with the effects of a variety of mental training regimes that generally fall within what might be called contemplative practices, and a majority of these studies have focused on mindfulness. Mindfulness meditation practices can be conceptualized as a set of attention-based, regulatory, and self-inquiry training regimes cultivated for various ends, including wellbeing and psychological health. This article examines the construct of mindfulness in psychological research and reviews recent, nonclinical work in this area. Instead of proposing a single definition of mindfulness, we interpret it as a continuum of practices involving states and processes that can be mapped into a multidimensional phenomenological matrix which itself can be expressed in a neurocognitive framework. This phenomenological matrix of mindfulness is presented as a heuristic to guide formulation of next-generation research hypotheses from both cognitive/behavioral and neuroscientific perspectives. In relation to this framework, we review selected findings on mindfulness cultivated through practices in traditional and research settings, and we conclude by identifying significant gaps in the literature and outline new directions for research.

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Background
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Background
Mediation analysis of triple networks revealed functional feature of mindfulness from real-time fMRI neurofeedback
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Meditation training modulates brain electric microstates and felt states of awareness
Zanesco, A. P., Skwara, A. C., King, B. G., Powers, C., Wineberg, K., & Saron, C. D. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25430 · Cited by 55
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Background
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Self-citation
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Background
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Background
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Background
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Background
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Trammel, R. (2017) · Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work Social Thought · doi:10.1080/15426432.2017.1295822 · Cited by 29
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Background
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“In this vein, we view our study as a direct response to two interrelated recommendations that have rapidly emerged to the top of the ‘prescriptive’ agenda for improving contemplative science (Van Dam et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2015; Lutz et al., 2015): (i) adoption of a multimodal approach so that first- (e.”
Method
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“Absolute model fit was evaluated with the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) based on common standards (good fit: RMSEA ≤ 0.05, SRMR ≤ 0.08, and CFI ≥ 0.95; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Marsh et al., 2004).”
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“Buddhism Mindfulness, as taught and practised within Buddhist meditation practices and mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), is a complex and multifaceted construct, which eludes a universal definition (Lutz et al. 2015).”
Background
The mindful leader: a review of leadership qualities derived from mindfulness meditation
Doornich, J. B., & Lynch, H. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1322507 · Cited by 50
“Lutz et al. (2016), meanwhile, found that experienced meditators, with at least 3 years’ experience, and with a minimum of 1 year’s practice of Vipassana mediation, who practice a minimum of 1 h per week, enhanced their experiential self-awareness, while at the same time reduced their tendency for…”
Background
Volitional mental absorption in meditation: Toward a scientific understanding of advanced concentrative absorption meditation and the case of jhana
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“Practitioners of ACAM focus their attention on a specific meditation object [10], seeking an absorption with the meditation object that leading to states of heightened attention, clarity, high energy, effortlessness, and bliss [11].”
Background
Reductions in perceived stress following Transcendental Meditation practice are associated with increased brain regional connectivity at rest
Avvenuti, G., Leo, A., Cecchetti, L., Franco, M. F., Travis, F. T., Caramella, D., Bernardi, G., Ricciardi, E., & Pietrini, P. (2020) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105517 · Cited by 34
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“With mindfulness meditation, the capacity for cognitive defusion is presumably developed through the nonreactive monitoring of experience (22).”
BackgroundInfluential
Breathwork-induced psychedelic experiences modulate neural dynamics
Lewis-Healey, E., Tagliazucchi, E., Canales‐Johnson, A., & Bekinschtein, T. A. (2024) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhae347 · Cited by 36
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“Identifying the mediating processes of mindfulness practice has been slowed down by the absence of an unequivocal definition and operationalisation (see e.g. Chiesa 2013; Lutz et al. 2015).”
Background
Development of a multidimensional, multi-informant measure of teacher mindfulness as experienced and expressed in the middle school classroom
Rickert, N. P., Skinner, E. A., & Roeser, R. W. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025419881724 · Cited by 33
“…the field has not yet converged upon a single definition (Lutz, Jha, Dunne, & Saron, 2015), many conceptualizations characterize mindfulness as an internal phenomenological and psychological state or dispositional trait (e.g., Brown & Ryan, 2003; Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Lutz et al., 2015).”
Background
A deeper look at the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and empathy: Meditation experience as a moderator and dereification processes as mediators
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Heartfulness Meditation: A Yogic and Neuroscientific Perspective
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Mindfulness and Defense Mechanisms as Explicit and Implicit Emotion Regulation Strategies against Psychological Distress during Massive Catastrophic Events
Giuseppe, M. D., Orrù, G., Gemignani, A., Ciacchini, R., Miniati, M., & Conversano, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191912690 · Cited by 46
“Recent neurobiological models propose that mindfulness may lead to changes in self-processing through the development of self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence, which may reflect modulation in neurocognitive networks related to intention and motivation, attention, and emotion regulation [9,10].”
Background
The influence of focused-attention meditation states on the cognitive control of sequence learning
Chan, R. W., Immink, M. A., & Lushington, K. (2017) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2017.07.004 · Cited by 32
Exploring the Effects of Meditation Techniques Used by Mindfulness-Based Programs on the Cognitive, Social-Emotional, and Academic Skills of Children: A Systematic Review
Filipe, M. G., Magalhães, S., Veloso, A. S., Costa, A. F., Ribeiro, L., Araújo, P., Castro, S. L., & Limpo, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.660650 · Cited by 42
Compared to self-immersion, mindful attention reduces salivation and automatic food bias
Baquedano, C., Vergara, R. C., López, V., Fabar, C., Cosmelli, D. J., & Antoine Lutz, A. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13662-z · Cited by 37
Investigating mindfulness influences on cognitive function: On the promise and potential of converging research strategies
Lin, Y., Tang, R., & Braver, T. S. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-02008-6 · Cited by 33
Mindfulness in organizations (part 1): a critical literature review
Passmore, J. (2019) · Industrial and Commercial Training · doi:10.1108/ict-07-2018-0063 · Cited by 40
Protocols for cognitive enhancement. A user manual for Brain Health Services—part 5 of 6
Guevara, A. B., Bieler-Aeschlimann, M., Altomare, D., Berthier, M. L., Csajka, C., Dautricourt, S., Démonet, J., Dodich, A., Frisoni, G. B., Miniussi, C., et al. (2021) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-021-00844-1 · Cited by 29
Long-Term and Meditation-Specific Modulations of Brain Connectivity Revealed Through Multivariate Pattern Analysis
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Mindfulness-based stress reduction for managers: a randomized controlled study: Table 1.
Żołnierczyk-Zreda, D., Sanderson, M., & Bedyńska, S. (2016) · Occupational Medicine · doi:10.1093/occmed/kqw091 · Cited by 33
Does Meditation Alter Brain Responses to Negative Stimuli? A Systematic Review
Magalhães, A. A., Oliveira, L., Pereira, M. G., & Menezes, C. B. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00448 · Cited by 30
“, thoughts, images, concepts, part of the body, sensation, deity) (Lutz et al., 2015; Guendelman et al., 2017).”
Event-related potential and behavioural differences in affective self-referential processing in long-term meditators versus controls
Katyal, S., Hajcak, G., Flora, T., Bartlett, A., & Goldin, P. (2019) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-020-00771-y · Cited by 23
The Association Between Implicit Racial Bias and Mindfulness in Mental Health Practitioners
Ivers, N. N., Johnson, D. A., & Rogers, J. L. (2020) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/jcad.12350 · Cited by 36
Nonlinear EEG signatures of mind wandering during breath focus meditation
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“In an important part of these meditation practices, practitioners focus their attention on a specific object of meditation (such as the sensation of breathing) and try to disengage from distractions (Lutz et al., 2015; Anālayo, 2019).”
Background
Mindfulness, Attentional Networks, and Executive Functioning: a Review of Interventions and Long-Term Meditation Practice
Lodha, S., & Gupta, R. (2022) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-022-00254-7 · Cited by 34
“Mindfulness interventions and long-term meditation practice often begin with focused attention (FA) meditation style, followed by open monitoring (OM), either in a single practice session or several practice sessions (Isbel & Summers, 2017; Lutz et al., 2008; Lutz et al., 2015).”
Background
Effects of meditation practice on spontaneous eyeblink rate
Kruis, A., Slagter, H. A., Bachhuber, D. R. W., Davidson, R. J., & Antoine Lutz, A. (2016) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12619 · Cited by 31
Active inference as a computational framework for consciousness
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Focused-attention meditation increases cognitive control during motor sequence performance: Evidence from the N2 cortical evoked potential
Chan, R. W., Alday, P. M., Zou-Williams, L., Lushington, K., Schlesewsky, M., Bornkessel‐Schlesewsky, I., & Immink, M. A. (2020) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112536 · Cited by 29
“The goal in the practice of FAM is to focus attention on an object such as the breath or awareness of body parts [49,50].”
Background
The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on the Association Between Autonomic Interoceptive Signals and Emotion Regulation Selection
Ardi, Z., Golland, Y., Shafir, R., Sheppes, G., & Levit‐Binnun, N. (2021) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000994 · Cited by 31
When the mind’s eye prevails: The Internal Dominance over External Attention (IDEA) hypothesis
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“There are many different forms of meditation (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015; Van Dam et al., 2018), but the best-stud-ied techniques from an empirical perspective are focused attention and open monitoring (Josipovic, 2010; Laukkonen & Slagter, 2021; Lutz et al., 2008, 2015).”
A More Rigorous Examination of the Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Working Memory Capacity
Baranski, M. F. S., & Was, C. A. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0064-5 · Cited by 28
Pattern Theory of Selflessness: How Meditation May Transform the Self-Pattern
Berkovich‐Ohana, A., Brown, K. W., Gallagher, S., Barendregt, H. P., Bauer, P. R., Giommi, F., Nyklíček, I., Ostafin, B. D., Raffone, A., Slagter, H. A., et al. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02418-2 · Cited by 37
“…become faster in noticing disengagement from the focus of attention, and better at monitoring ongoing momentary experience (Kordes et al., 2019; Lutz et al., 2015; Petitmengin et al., 2017), which would support concentration on the anchoring object for longer periods (e.g., Hasenkamp &…”
Influential
An Overview of Neurophenomenological Approaches to Meditation and Their Relevance to Clinical Research
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Mindfulness Training is Associated with Changes in Alpha-Theta Cross-Frequency Dynamics During Meditation
Rodriguez‐Larios, J., Wong, K. F., Lim, J., & Alaerts, K. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01487-3 · Cited by 29
“…EEG changes during meditation relative to rest reflect reduced occurrence of mind wandering episodes (Faber et al. 2015; Hinterberger et al. 2014; Lehmann et al. 2012); which, at least in the context of focused attention meditation, are considered distractors (Dahl et al. 2015; Lutz et al. 2015).”
Background
Contrasting Electroencephalography-Derived Entropy and Neural Oscillations With Highly Skilled Meditators
Young, J. H., Arterberry, M. E., & Martin, J. P. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.628417 · Cited by 30
Autonomic nervous system modulation during self-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness
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A Neurophenomenological Investigation of Mindfulness Among Collegiate Musicians
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“Furthermore, as dimensions of the model have been mapped to potentially related psychological and neuroanatomical features of cognition (Lutz et al., 2015), the phenomenological matrix of mindfulness (PM) provides a framework for neurophenomenological explorations of mindfulness as proposed by…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
The Calm, Clear, and Kind Educator: A Contemplative Educational Approach to Teacher Professional Identity Development
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Neuroplasticity within and between Functional Brain Networks in Mental Training Based on Long-Term Meditation
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“The characterization of large-scale brain networks appears crucial for the study of consciousness and meditation [6,9,16].”
Background
Extending the Transformative Potential of Mindfulness Through Team Mindfulness Training, Integrating Individual With Collective Mindfulness, in a High-Stress Military Setting
Tobias, J. M., Carter, A. R., & Querstret, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.867110 · Cited by 31
An updated classification of meditation methods using principles of taxonomy and systematics
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Neuronal generator patterns at scalp elicited by lateralized aversive pictures reveal consecutive stages of motivated attention
Jürgen Kayser, A., Tenke, C. E., Abraham, K. S., Alschuler, D. M., Alvarenga, J. E., Skipper, J., Warner, V., Bruder, G. E., & Weissman, M. M. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.05.059 · Cited by 26
“, 1989; Gainotti, 1987; Heller, 1993; Tranel and Damasio, 1994) and has since been linked to a brain network involving cortical (anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex [ACC]) and subcortical (amygdala, striatum) structures for detecting emotional and reward saliency (Corbetta and Shulman, 2002; Lutz et al., 2015).”
Influential
The effects of Sahaja Yoga meditation on mental health: a systematic review
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The Many Roads to Mindfulness: A Review of Nonmindfulness-Based Interventions that Increase Mindfulness
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“81,82 A potential solution to this problem is incorporating more objective measures of mindfulness 83 in addition to self-reported questionnaires to accurately capture all the components of mindfulness.”
Comparing Mindfulness and Positivity Trainings in High-Demand Cohorts
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Self-citation
Mechanisms of Mindfulness: A Longitudinal Study of a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program
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“Any individual self-report measure of mindfulness is inherently limited and other drivers of mindfulness development would likely be better captured using behavioural or neurocognitive approaches (Baer, 2019; Lutz et al., 2015).”
Impact of warm mindfulness on emotion regulation: a randomized controlled effectiveness trial
Gawande, R., Smith, L., Comeau, A., Creedon, T. B., Wilson, C. L., Griswold, T., Cook, B. L., Loucks, E. B., & Schuman-Olivier, Z. (2023) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0001303 · Cited by 24
Neural correlates of nonjudgmental perception induced through meditation
Katyal, S., & Goldin, P. (2021) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14603 · Cited by 6
The impact of mindfulness on nurses’ perceived professional benefits: the mediating roles of workplace spirituality and work-life balance
Lin, Y., Jiang, C., Pan, Y., & Xu, Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1346326 · Cited by 33
“Recent studies have shown that mindfulness practices can reduce cognitive overload and improve decision-making abilities, aligning well with the cognitive resource theory’s emphasis on the importance of cognitive abilities in complex tasks (Hölzel et al., 2011; Lutz et al., 2016).”
Background
Long-term effects of yoga-based practices on neural, cognitive, psychological, and physiological outcomes in adults: a scoping review and evidence map
Campelo, G., de Araújo, J. R., Aristizabal, J. P., de Souza, W. C., & de Castilho, G. M. (2025) · BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12906-025-04825-x · Cited by 28
“Even if no specific meditative technique is employed, beginners might gradually transition from unstable, effortful, closed-focus and object-oriented meditative experiences to more stable, effortless, open and meta-aware experiences [9, 12].”
Silence in Shamatha, Transcendental, and Stillness Meditation: An Evidence Synthesis Based on Expert Texts
Woods, T. J., Windt, J., & Carter, O. L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01259 · Cited by 24
“Traditional accounts are a major source of information about meditation practices and meditation researchers generally agree that they have sufficient reliability to be of value (Studstill, 2005, pp. 52, 85; Lindahl et al., 2014; Sedlmeier et al., 2014, p. 620; Lutz et al., 2015; cf. Sharf, 1995).”
Background
Residential Greenspace and Urban Adolescent Substance Use: Exploring Interactive Effects with Peer Network Health, Sex, and Executive Function
Mennis, J. L., Li, X., Meenar, M., Coatsworth, J. D., McKeon, T. P., & Mason, M. J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041611 · Cited by 26
“Most mindfulness training programs primarily involve focused-attention exercises that require cognitive effort but relaxed alertness to suppress mind-wandering and distractions [71].”
Background
Pain regulation during mindfulness meditation: Phenomenological fingerprints in novices and experts practitioners
Poletti, S., Abdoun, O., Zorn, J. V., & Antoine Lutz, A. (2021) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1002/ejp.1774 · Cited by 28
Short-Term Training in Mindfulness Predicts Helping Behavior Toward Racial Ingroup and Outgroup Members
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“Fourth, only one form of mindfulness, namely, focused attention, was taught to specify the type of training received (Lutz et al., 2015; Zeidan et al., 2015), and it was tested against a structurally equivalent sham meditation training (adapted from Zeidan et al., 2015).”
Method
The search for scientific meaning in mindfulness research: Insights from a scoping review
Phan-Le, N. T., Brennan, L. L., & Parker, L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264924 · Cited by 31
A single session of mindfulness meditation may acutely enhance cognitive performance regardless of meditation experience
Sleimen-Malkoun, R., Devillers-Réolon, L., & Temprado, J.-J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282188 · Cited by 29
Inter-brain Synchronization in the Practice of Tibetan Monastic Debate
van Vugt, M. K., Pollock, J., Johnson, B., Gyatso, K., Norbu, N., Lodroe, T., Gyaltsen, T., Phuntsok, L., Thakchoe, J., Khechok, J., et al. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01338-1 · Cited by 24
The (Lack of) Replication of Self-Reported Mindfulness as a Mechanism of Change in Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention for Substance Use Disorders
Hsiao, Y.-Y., Tofighi, D., Kruger, E. S., Lee Van Horn, M., MacKinnon, D. P., & Witkiewitz, K. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-1023-z · Cited by 23

Authors: Lutz, A., Jha, A. P., Dunne, J. D., & Saron, C. D.
Affiliations: University of Miami (US)
Emory University (US)
University of California System (US)
ORCID: Jha, Amishi P.
Dunne, John D.
Saron, Clifford D.
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2015-10
Volume: 70
Issue: 7
Pages: 632-658
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/a0039585
PMC: PMC4608430
OpenAlex: W2410872259
Cited by: 697
References: 173
Citations by year: 2026: 49 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 91 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 78 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 7
FWCI: 54.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: other-oa
www.apa.org/pubs/journals/resources/open-access.aspx (am, 369 d)
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (P01AT004952)
Sponsor name not included (FP7-PEOPLE-2009-RG)
European Research Council (617739)
Adam J. Weissman Foundation
Department of Army (W81XWH-12–2-0051 and W81XWH-11–2-0124)
Fetzer Institute (2191)
John Templeton Foundation (39970)
Hershey Family Foundation
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
Keywords: mindfulness, mindfulness meditation, contemplative practice, attentional control, self-inquiry, well-being, mental health, mental training, research hypotheses
MeSH terms: Attention, Cognition, Humans, Mental Health, Research, Stress, Psychological, Meditation, Mindfulness

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Investigating the phenomenological matrix of mindfulness-related practices from a neurocognitive perspective.

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