The DOI matches its Crossref record; 57 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.
Abstract
This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These differences may be attributed to societal processes and organizational norms that assign women to tasks more highly associated with communion (i.e., teaching and service) and men to tasks more highly associated with agency (i.e., research) (e.g., Eagly et al., 2020).”
From Faculty Time Expenditure Across Research, Teaching, and Service: Do Gender Differences Persist? (2023) · cites this paper as Eagly et al., 2020
Citations
Cites
Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2021) · doi:10.1002/9781119558378 · Cited by 9,799
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878 · Cited by 7,364
From acts to dispositions the attribution process in person perception
Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. (1965) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60107-0 · Cited by 3,424
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692 · Cited by 2,756
Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2008) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(07)00002-0 · Cited by 2,682
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012) · Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology · doi:10.4135/9781446249222.n49 · Cited by 1,853
Self-citationAre leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms
Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0023557 · Cited by 1,748
Self-citationThe Growing Importance of Social Skills in the Labor Market*
Deming, D. J. (2017) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjx022 · Cited by 1,727
Likableness ratings of 555 personality-trait words.
Anderson, N. H. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025907 · Cited by 1,668
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Historical comparison of gender inequality in scientific careers across countries and disciplines
Huang, J., Gates, A. J., Sinatra, R., & Barabási, A.-Ĺ. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1914221117 · Cited by 978
Empirically derived guidelines for effect size interpretation in social psychology
Lovakov, A. V., & Рафиковна, А. Е. (2021) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2752 · Cited by 755
Morgenroth, T., & Ryan, M. K. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620902442 · Cited by 238
Women at Work: Pathways from Gender Stereotypes to Gender Bias and Discrimination
Heilman, M. E., Caleo, S., & Manzi, F. (2023) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-034105 · Cited by 294
“Although altering social norms would be an obvious solution, decades of research on stereotype change demonstrate that modifying gender-based norms is slow and complex (Eagly et al.2020).”
BackgroundSantoniccolo, F., Trombetta, T., Paradiso, M. N., & Rollè, L. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20105770 · Cited by 262
“Their content varies on the individual’s culture of reference [30], but recurring themes have been observed in western culture, such as stereotypes revolving around communion, agency and competence [31].”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- American Institutes for Research (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2020-04
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 301-315
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2961388998
- Cited by
- 1,136
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
- Keywords
- gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
