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Cited by 1,748Gender Diversity and InequalityGender Roles and Identity StudiesSocial and Intergroup Psychology

Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms

Koenig, Anne M., Eagly, Alice H., Mitchell, Abigail A., Ristikari, Tiina·2011·Psychological Bulletin
DOI 10.1037/a0023557
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Abstract

This meta-analysis examined the extent to which stereotypes of leaders are culturally masculine. The primary studies fit into 1 of 3 paradigms: (a) In Schein's (1973) think manager-think male paradigm, 40 studies with 51 effect sizes compared the similarity of male and leader stereotypes and the similarity of female and leader stereotypes; (b) in Powell and Butterfield's (1979) agency-communion paradigm, 22 studies with 47 effect sizes compared stereotypes of leaders' agency and communion; and (c) in Shinar's (1975) masculinity-femininity paradigm, 7 studies with 101 effect sizes represented stereotypes of leadership-related occupations on a single masculinity-femininity dimension. Analyses implemented appropriate random and mixed effects models. All 3 paradigms demonstrated overall masculinity of leader stereotypes: (a) In the think manager-think male paradigm, intraclass correlation = .25 for the women-leaders similarity and intraclass correlation = .62 for the men-leaders similarity; (b) in the agency-communion paradigm, g = 1.55, indicating greater agency than communion; and (c) in the masculinity-femininity paradigm, g = 0.92, indicating greater masculinity than the androgynous scale midpoint. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses indicated that this masculine construal of leadership has decreased over time and was greater for male than female research participants. In addition, stereotypes portrayed leaders as less masculine in educational organizations than in other domains and in moderate- than in high-status leader roles. This article considers the relation of these findings to Eagly and Karau's (2002) role congruity theory, which proposed contextual influences on the incongruity between stereotypes of women and leaders. The implications for prejudice against women leaders are also considered.

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  • White and masculine leadership standards can result in biased perceptions and evaluations of women.

    “These White and masculine leadership standards can result in biased perceptions and evaluations of people who do not fit the image of a leader, such as women (Eagly & Carli, 2007;Johnson, Murphy, Zewdie & Reichard, 2008;Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011;Rosette, Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008).”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011

  • The qualities used to describe men are similar to those used to describe effective leaders, resulting in men being viewed as a better fit with the leader role than women.

    “The qualities used to describe men are similar to those used to describe effective leaders resulting in men being viewed as a better”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Koenig et al., 2011

  • There has been a cultural change such that leadership is increasingly thought of as an androgynous endeavor requiring both agency and communal relational skills.

    “There has been a cultural change such that leadership is increasingly being thought of as an androgynous endeavor requiring both agency as well as communal relational skills (Koenig et al., 2011).”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Koenig et al., 2011

  • The masculine construal of leadership has decreased over time.

    “However, this research also showed that it has decreased over time.”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Koenig et al., 2011

  • A meta-analysis of nearly 70 studies across three research paradigms showed a strong and robust masculine construal of leadership.

    “A meta-analysis of nearly 70 studies across three research paradigms that examined the masculinity of leader stereotypes showed that there is a strong and robust masculine construal of leadership.”

    From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Koenig et al., 2011

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Authors
Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T.
Affiliations
  • University of San Diego (US)
  • Northwestern University (US)
  • Nebraska Wesleyan University (US)
  • Tampere University (FI)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Bulletin
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2011-07
Volume
137
Issue
4
Pages
616-642
ISSN
  • 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1455
DOI
10.1037/a0023557
OpenAlex
W2101646211
Cited by
1,748
References
151
Citations by year
2026: 139 · 2025: 169 · 2024: 145 · 2023: 162 · 2022: 138 · 2021: 173 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 128 · 2018: 120 · 2017: 107 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 93 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 61 · 2012: 22
FWCI
23.06
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Institutes of Health (1 F31 MH074251)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Diversity and Inequality
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords
masculinity, gender stereotypes, masculinity and femininity, women leaders, role congruity theory, educational institutions
MeSH terms
Female, Humans, Leadership, Male, Occupations, Prejudice, Psychological Tests, Psychological Theory, Regression Analysis, Research Design, Social Class, Stereotyping, Effect Modifier, Epidemiologic, Databases, Bibliographic, Publication Bias, Masculinity

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