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Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.
Abstract
This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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“These differences may be attributed to societal processes and organizational norms that assign women to tasks more highly associated with communion (i.e., teaching and service) and men to tasks more highly associated with agency (i.e., research) (e.g., Eagly et al., 2020).”
From Faculty Time Expenditure Across Research, Teaching, and Service: Do Gender Differences Persist? (2023) · cites this paper as Eagly et al., 2020
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“For instance, women entrepreneurs tend to be judged by stricter standards when applying for funding and are more likely to be disliked and ignored when in a leadership position (Tonoyan and Strohmeyer, 2021; Eagly et al. , 2020).”
BackgroundThe “good manager” over five decades: towards an androgynous profile?
Powell, G. N., Butterfield, D. A., & Jiang, X. (2021) · Gender in Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/gm-01-2021-0023 · Cited by 37
The Effect of Gender on Investors’ Judgments and Decision-Making
Luo, Y., & Salterio, S. E. (2021) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-021-04806-3 · Cited by 39
The Effects of a Self-Similar Avatar Voice in Educational Games
Kao, D., Ratan, R., Mousas, C., & Magana, A. J. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3474665 · Cited by 41
“1In discussing gender stereotypes, we acknowledge that although researchers have found these stereotypes to often be consistent across culture [48] and time [77], other studies have found some variability [52, 64].”
BackgroundManagerial stereotypes over time: the rise of feminine leadership
Feenstra, S., Stoker, J. I., Lammers, J., & Garretsen, H. (2023) · Gender in Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/gm-10-2022-0331 · Cited by 47
Anzani, A., Siboni, L., Lindley, L. M., Galupo, M. P., & Prunas, A. (2023) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-023-00842-y · Cited by 36
“Western society’s predominant conception of gender sees it as a binary concept, beyond the arguments that would contradict its strictly dichotomous nature (e.g., Eagly et al., 2020; Joel et al., 2015).”
Ambitious Women: Gender and Voter Perceptions of Candidate Ambition
Saha, S., & Weeks, A. C. (2020) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-020-09636-z · Cited by 37
Dunlop, R., & Scheepers, C. B. (2022) · Management Research Review · doi:10.1108/mrr-11-2021-0796 · Cited by 35
Jennings, P. D., Rahman, Z., & Dempsey, D. (2022) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1177/10422587221102108 · Cited by 34
“In the case of women, it is plausible that displays of entrepreneurial over-confidence will be perceived as a breach of widely-held stereotypical beliefs that women should be modest and downplay their competence (cf. Eagly et al., 2020; Heilman, 2012).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Pedagogical Agents' Gender on Academic Learning: A Systematic Review
Armando, M., Ochs, M., & Régner, I. (2022) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2022.862997 · Cited by 41
“This raises the question of whether the evolution in the perception of stereotypes in human-human interactions shown by Eagly et al. (2020) can be observed similarly in human-virtual agent interactions.”
BackgroundResultGender similarities and differences in dishonesty
Kennedy, J. A., & Kray, L. J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101461 · Cited by 38
Risqué business? Interpersonal anxiety and humor in the #MeToo era.
Gloor, J. L. P., Cooper, C. D., Bowes‐Sperry, L., & Chawla, N. (2021) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000937 · Cited by 34
Gender stereotypes explain different mental prototypes of male and female leaders
Giacomin, M., Tskhay, K. O., & Rule, N. O. (2021) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101578 · Cited by 37
Research on Gender Stereotyping and Entrepreneurship: Suggestions for Some Paths Worth Pursuing
Jennings, P. D., & Tonoyan, V. (2022) · Entrepreneurship Research Journal · doi:10.1515/erj-2022-0235 · Cited by 45
“If stereotypical notions of gender-typed roles and characteristics continue to evolve (Eagly et al. 2020), will homophily based on other indicators of similarity become the primary — or even sole — determinant of any remaining differential treatment experienced by entrepreneurs of different genders?”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- University of Bern (CH)
- American Institutes for Research (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2020-04
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 301-315
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2961388998
- Cited by
- 1,136
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 175 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 63
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Swiss National Science Foundation (P0BEP1_162210)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Media, Gender, and Advertising
- Keywords
- gender stereotypes, public opinion, cross-temporal change, gender roles, women's roles, gender equality, female superiority, competence, social roles, United States
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Public Opinion, Stereotyping, United States, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century, Femininity, Masculinity
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