Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: a systematic and meta-analytic review
Abstract
Over the last century hundreds of studies have demonstrated that testing is an effective intervention to enhance long-term retention of studied knowledge and facilitate mastery of new information, compared with restudying and many other learning strategies (e.g., concept mapping), a phenomenon termed the testing effect. How robust is this effect in applied settings beyond the laboratory? The current review integrated 48,478 students' data, extracted from 222 independent studies, to investigate the magnitude, boundary conditions, and psychological underpinnings of test-enhanced learning in the classroom. The results show that overall testing (quizzing) raises student academic achievement to a medium extent (g = 0.499). The magnitude of the effect is modulated by a variety of factors, including learning strategy in the control condition, test format consistency, material matching, provision of corrective feedback, number of test repetitions, test administration location and timepoint, treatment duration, and experimental design. The documented findings support 3 theories to account for the classroom testing effect: additional exposure, transfer-appropriate processing, and motivation. In addition to their implications for theory development, these results have practical significance for enhancing teaching practice and guiding education policy and highlight important directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The testing effect is observable across educational levels and learning outcomes, ranging from factual knowledge to conceptual understanding and problem-solving.
“Yang et al. (2021), in a large-scale meta-analysis of studies conducted in real classrooms, confirmed that the effect is observable across educational levels and learning outcomes—ranging from factual knowledge to conceptual understanding and even problem-solving.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
The outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, domains where testing effects typically emerge.
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
The instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials.
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
Cites
A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement
Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C. S., Hinojosa, C. P., et al. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y · Cited by 1,513 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In addition, as noted by many educators and researchers, “in real-world [educational] settings, a fifth of a standard deviation [0.20 SD] is a large effect” (Dynarski, 2017; Yeager et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMotivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review
Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315617832 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Averaging correlation coefficients: Should Fisher’s z transformation be used?
Silver, N. C., & Dunlap, W. P. (1987) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.146 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
Correcting for Bias in Psychology: A Comparison of Meta-Analytic Methods
Carter, E. C., Schönbrodt, F. D., Gervais, W. M., & Hilgard, J. (2019) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919847196 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
Testing the testing effect in the classroom
McDaniel, M. A., Anderson, J. L., Derbish, M. H., & Morrisette, N. (2007) · European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440701326154 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Clickers in college classrooms: Fostering learning with questioning methods in large lecture classes
Mayer, R. E., Stull, A. T., DeLeeuw, K. E., Almeroth, K. C., Bimber, B., Chun, D. M., Bulger, M., Campbell, J., Knight, A., & Zhang, H. (2008) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.04.002 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
McShane, B. B., Böckenholt, U., & Hansen, K. T. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616662243 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Test-enhanced learning in the classroom: Long-term improvements from quizzing.
Roediger, H. L., III, Agarwal, P. K., McDaniel, M. A., & McDermott, K. B. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0026252 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
The Positive and Negative Consequences of Multiple-Choice Testing.
Roediger, H. L., III, & Marsh, E. J. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1155 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
King, A. (1992) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312029002303 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Test Anxiety: Interference, Defective Skills, and Cognitive Capacity
Tobias, S. (1985) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2003_3 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Promoting student-centered active learning in lectures with a personal response system
Gauci, S. A., Dantas, A. M., Williams, D. A., & Kemm, R. E. (2009) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00109.2007 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Multilevel Meta-analysis: a comparison with traditional meta-analytical procedures
Van Den Noortgate, W., & Onghena, P. (2003) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164403251027 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Crossgrove, K., & Curran, K. L. (2008) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.07-08-0060 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Retrieval during learning facilitates subsequent memory encoding.
Pastötter, B., Schicker, S., Niedernhuber, J., & Bäuml, K. T. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0021801 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Retrieving Essential Material at the End of Lectures Improves Performance on Statistics Exams
Lyle, K. B., & Crawford, N. A. (2011) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628311401587 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Szpunar, K. K., Jing, H. G., & Schacter, D. L. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.02.001 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Jacoby, L. L., Wahlheim, C. N., & Coane, J. H. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0020636 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Benefits from retrieval practice are greater for students with lower working memory capacity
Agarwal, P. K., Finley, J. R., Rose, N. S., & Roediger, H. L., III (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1220579 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Larsen, D. P., Butler, A. C., Lawson, A. L., & Roediger, H. L., III (2012) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-012-9379-7 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
ANALYZING THE EFFICACY OF THE TESTING EFFECT USING KAHOOTTM ON STUDENT PERFORMANCE
TAITANO, E. J., & VUONG, K. (2017) · Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.17718/tojde.306561 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
The critical role of retrieval processes in release from proactive interference
Bäuml, K. T., & Kliegl, O. (2012) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2012.07.006 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
A Classroom Study on the Relationship Between Student Achievement and Retrieval-Enhanced Learning
Carpenter, S. K., Lund, T. J. S., Coffman, C. R., Armstrong, P. I., Lamm, M. H., & Reason, R. D. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9311-9 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Retrieval-based learning: The need for guided retrieval in elementary school children
Karpicke, J. D., Blunt, J. R., Smith, M. A., & Karpicke, S. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.07.008 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Jing, H. G., Szpunar, K. K., & Schacter, D. L. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000087 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Multiple-choice testing as a desirable difficulty in the classroom.
Bjork, E. L., Little, J. L., & Storm, B. C. (2014) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.03.002 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Online feedback assessments in physiology: effects on students' learning experiences and outcomes
Marden, N. Y., Ulman, L. G., Wilson, F. S., & Velan, G. M. (2013) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00092.2012 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Diagnosing Criterion-Level Effects on Memory
Vaughn, K. E., & Rawson, K. A. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611417724 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Memorial consequences of multiple-choice testing on immediate and delayed tests
Fazio, L. K., Agarwal, P. K., Marsh, E. J., & Roediger, H. L., III (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.4.407 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
A Controlled Study of Clicker-Assisted Memory Enhancement in College Classrooms
Shapiro, A., & Gordon, L. T. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2843 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
The role of test expectancy in the build-up of proactive interference in long-term memory.
Weinstein, Y., Gilmore, A. W., Szpunar, K. K., & McDermott, K. B. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0036164 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Petrović, J., Pale, P., & Jeren, B. (2017) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-016-9571-0 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Lechuga, M. T., Tudela, J. M. O., & Gómez‐Ariza, C. J. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.08.002 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Testing Effects Measured with Alternate Test Forms
Duchastel, P. C., & Nungester, R. J. (1982) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1982.10885400 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Do Weekly Quizzes Improve Student Performance on General Biology Exams?
Haberyan, K. A. (2003) · The American Biology Teacher · doi:10.2307/4451449 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The Use of Flashcards in an Introduction to Psychology Class
Golding, J. M., Wasarhaley, N. E., & Fletcher, B. (2012) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628312450436 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Cross-Gender Interaction in Technology Education: A Survey
Haynie, W. J. (1999) · Journal of Technology Education · doi:10.21061/jte.v10i2.a.2 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Bachman, L. R., & Bachman, C. (2011) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Mains, T., Cofrancesco, J., Milner, S. M., Shah, N. G., & Goldberg, H. R. (2015) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2014-132987 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Can formative quizzes predict or improve summative exam performance?*
Zhang, N., & Henderson, C. N. R. (2014) · Journal of Chiropractic Education · doi:10.7899/jce-14-12 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Timing of quizzes during learning: Effects on motivation and retention.
Healy, A. F., Jones, M., Lalchandani, L. A., & Tack, L. A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000123 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Beyond the Rainbow: Retrieval Practice Leads to Better Spelling than does Rainbow Writing
Jones, A. C., Wardlow, L., Pan, S. C., Zepeda, C. D., Heyman, G. D., Dunlosky, J. T., & Rickard, T. C. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9330-6 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The effects of frequent testing in an income tax course: An experiment
Murphy, D. P., & Stanga, K. G. (1994) · Journal of Accounting Education · doi:10.1016/0748-5751(94)90017-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Four semesters investigating frequency of testing, the testing effect, and transfer of training.
Foss, D. J., & Pirozzolo, J. W. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000197 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
A Comparison of Active Student Responding Modalities in a General Psychology Course
Zayac, R. M., Ratkos, T., Frieder, J. E., & Paulk, A. L. (2015) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628315620879 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Testing Is More Desirable When It Is Adaptive and Still Desirable When Compared to Note-Taking
Heitmann, S., Grund, A., Berthold, K., Fries, S., & Roelle, J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02596 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Trumbo, M., Leiting, K. A., McDaniel, M., & Hodge, G. K. (2016) · Journal of experimental psychology. Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000082 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Teplitski, M., Irani, T. A., Krediet, C., Cesare, M. D., & Marvasi, M. (2018) · Journal of Food Science Education · doi:10.1111/1541-4329.12129 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Effect of Announced Quizzes on Exam Performance: II.
Azorlosa, J. L., & Renner, C. H. (2006) · Journal of instructional psychology · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Bekkink, M. O., Donders, R. A. R. T., van Muijen, G. N. P., & Ruiter, D. J. (2011) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9291-6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Simple formative assessment, high learning gains in college general chemistry
Yalaki, Y. (2010) · Eurasian Journal of Educational Research · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Failure of online quizzing to improve performance in introductory psychology courses.
Bell, M. C., Simone, P. M., & Whitfield, L. C. (2015) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000020 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Generation and Retrieval Practice Effects in the Classroom Using PeerWise
Kelley, M. R., Chapman-Orr, E. K., Calkins, S., & Lemke, R. J. (2019) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628319834174 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-testing produces superior recall of both familiar and unfamiliar muscle information
Dobson, J. L., Linderholm, T., & Yarbrough, M. B. (2015) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00052.2015 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Coker, A. O., Lusk, K. A., Maize, D. F., Ramsinghani, S., Tabor, R. A., Yablonski, E. A., & Zertuche, A. (2018) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2018.08.019 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Contingency-Managed College Instruction: Effects of Weekly Quizzes on Performance on Examination
Geiger, O., & Bostow, D. E. (1976) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1976.39.3.707 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Increased learning or GPA inflation? Evidence from GPA-based university admission in Chile
Fajnzylber, E., Bernardo Lara, E., & León, T. V. (2019) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.05.009 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Arteaga, I. L., & Vinken, E. (2012) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2012.719000 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
ANXIETY AND ACHIEVEMENT AS FUNCTIONS OF DAILY TESTING1
Denny, T. P., Paterson, J. J., & Feldhusen, J. F. (1964) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1964.tb00172.x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bufe, J., & Aslan, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01701 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Comparing Review Strategies in the Classroom
Lloyd, E. P., Walker, R. J., Metz, M. A., & Diekman, A. B. (2018) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628318762871 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Effects of testing versus review on rote and conceptual learning from prose
Bing, S. B. (1984) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00052385 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Howe, P. D. L., McKague, M., Lodge, J. M., Blunden, A. G., & Saw, G. (2018) · Psychology Learning & Teaching · doi:10.1177/1475725718764181 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Effects of frequent announced parasitology quizzes on the academic achievement.
Zamini, G., Erfan, M. B. K., Rahmani, M. R., Khodavaisy, M. S., & Davari, B. (2013) · PubMed Central · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Effect of Formative Quizzes on Teacher Candidates’ Learning in General Chemistry
Yalaki, Y., & Bayram, Z. (2015) · International Journal of Research in Education and Science · doi:10.21890/ijres.63976 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Effects of different types of quizzes on student effort investment behaviour and learning outcomes
Lin, T. (2016) · International Journal of Education Economics and Development · doi:10.1504/ijeed.2016.079238 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tepgeç, M., & Çevik, Y. D. (2018) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
On the Effectiveness of Quizzes on L2 Idioms Learning
Zarei, A. A. (2015) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Heinicke, M. R., Zuckerman, C. K., & Cravalho, D. A. (2017) · Behavior Analysis Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/bar0000073 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Rashid, M. N. (2017) · Advances in Applied Physiology · doi:10.11648/j.aap.20170201.12 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Frequent announced pharmacology quizzes have no impact on academic performance: An exploratory study
Atia, A., Ashour, A., & Abired, A. N. (2018) · Ibnosina Journal of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences · doi:10.4103/ijmbs.ijmbs_44_17 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Effective Teacher Professional Development: New Theory and a Meta-Analytic Test
Sims, S., Fletcher-Wood, H., O’Mara-Eves, A., Cottingham, S., Stansfield, C., Goodrich, J., Herwegen, J. V., & Anders, J. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231217480 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
“Causal evidence that this aids with learning in lab settings, as well as in history, math, and language learning at school, can be found in the reviews by Adesope et al. (2017), Rohrer (2015), and Yang (2021).”
The cognitive principles of learning underlying the 5E Model of Instruction
Martín, H. R., & Bybee, R. W. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00337-z · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“, quizzing) that avoid the detrimental effects of stress associated with testing (McDaniel et al., 2011; Wenzel & Reinhard, 2021; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan
Cronin-Golomb, L. M., & Bauer, P. J. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103816 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Students Can (Mostly) Recognize Effective Learning, So Why Do They Not Do It?
Rea, S. D., Wang, L., Muenks, K. M., & Yan, V. X. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10040127 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Yan, V. X., & Schuetze, B. A. (2023) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000370 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The double-edged sword of memory retrieval
Roediger, H. L., III, & Abel, M. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00115-2 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“19,21,23,24 ).”
ResultInfluentialInterleaving Retrieval Practice Promotes Science Learning
Sana, F., & Yan, V. X. (2022) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211057507 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The benefits of retrieval practice are well documented (Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCommentary: Reimagining marketing education in the age of generative AI
Acar, O. A. (2024) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2024.06.004 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Yang, J., Zhang, Y., Pi, Z., & Xie, Y. (2021) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102055 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Zhao, W., Li, B., Shanks, D. R., Zhao, W., Zheng, J., Hu, X., Su, N., Fan, T., Yin, Y., Luo, L., et al. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13689 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Roelle, J., Endres, T., Abel, R., Obergassel, N., Nückles, M., & Renkl, A. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09810-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…on generative learning, a critical incident during the retrieval practice research wave as reflected in the exponential growth in publications since Roediger and Karpicke’s (2006) seminal study (see Karpicke, 2017; Yang et al., 2021) is obvious in Karpicke and Blunt’s (2011) provocative study.”
InfluentialInstructor mindset beliefs and behaviors: How do students and instructors perceive them?
Muenks, K., Kroeper, K. M., Canning, E. A., & Murphy, M. C. (2024) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-024-09948-6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“For example, frequent quiz - zing is theoretically a growth-oriented practice, as it allows for students to have lots of low-stakes practice and opportunities to improve their knowledge or skills (e.g., Yang et al., 2021).”
Ribeiro, M., Santos, J., Lobo, J., Araújo, S., Magalhães, L., & Adão, T. O. (2024) · international conference on 3D web technology · doi:10.1145/3665318.3677172 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Testing is an effective intervention to enhance long-term retention of studied knowledge and facilitate mastery of new information, compared with restudying and many other learning strategies, a phenomenon termed the testing effect [Yang et al., 2021].”
A Meta-Analysis on Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Applications: Benefits and Risks
Mihaylova, M., Gorin, S., Reber, T. P., & Rothen, N. (2022) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1146 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
How to Promote Lasting Learning in Schools
Richter, T., Berger, R., Ebersbach, M., Eitel, A., Endres, T., Ferri, R. B., Hänze, M., Lachner, A., Leutner, D., Lipowsky, F., et al. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000258 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Combining Retrieval Practice and Generative Learning in Educational Contexts
Roelle, J., Schweppe, J., Endres, T., Lachner, A., von Aufschnaiter, C., Renkl, A., Eitel, A., Leutner, D., Rummer, R., Scheiter, K., et al. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000261 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
A critical analysis of the research evidence behind CAST’s universal design for learning guidelines
Boysen, G. A. (2024) · Policy Futures in Education · doi:10.1177/14782103241255428 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Policy Futures in Education 22(7) based teaching practice that grew to popularity around the same time as UDL, and one meta-analysis of its classroom implementation using quizzes included 222 studies of almost 50,000 students (Yang et al., 2021).”
McManus, I. C., Woolf, K., Harrison, D., Tiffin, P. A., Paton, L. W., Cheung, K. Y. F., & Smith, D. T. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047354 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Yang, C., Zhao, W., Yuan, B., Luo, L., & Shanks, D. R. (2022) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543221094083 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Heitmann, S., Grund, A., Fries, S., Berthold, K., & Roelle, J. (2021) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101526 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Do Practice Tests (Quizzes) Reduce or Provoke Test Anxiety? A Meta-Analytic Review
Yang, C., Li, J., Zhao, W., Luo, L., & Shanks, D. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09801-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Roelle, J., Froese, L., Krebs, R., Obergassel, N., & Waldeyer, J. (2022) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101634 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Baidoo-Anu, D., & Baidoo, I. E. (2022) · Education Inquiry · doi:10.1080/20004508.2022.2110673 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Researchers also argued that high-stake standardised exams are strongly linked to improvements in an average performance in international standardised assessments (Bergbauer, Hanushek, & Woessmann, 2018; Yang, Luo, Vadillo, Yu, & Shanks, 2021).”
Metacognitive judgments can potentiate new learning: The role of covert retrieval
Kubik, V., Koslowski, K., Schubert, T., & Aslan, A. (2022) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-022-09307-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“, 2018; for an overview, see Karpicke & Aue, 2015; Rowland, 2014) and settings (e.g., in the lab and classroom environments, Adesope et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundConstructive retrieval: Benefits for learning, motivation, and metacognitive monitoring
Endres, T., Carpenter, S. K., & Renkl, A. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101974 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Polack, C. W., & Miller, R. R. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Learning and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xan0000323 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The more, the better? Learning with feedback and instruction
Wagner, S., Sibley, L., Weiler, D., Burde, J., Scheiter, K., & Lachner, A. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101844 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Formative and Summative Automated Assessment with Multiple-Choice Question Banks
Beerepoot, M. T. P. (2023) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c00120 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Emerging and Future Directions in Test-Enhanced Learning Research
Pan, S. C., Dunlosky, J., Xu, K. M., & Ouwehand, K. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09857-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…& Butler, 2011; van den Broek et al., 2016; van Gog & Sweller, 2015), meta-analyses (e.g., Adesope et al., 2017; Pan & Rickard, 2018; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021), article databases (e.g., Rawson & Dunlosky, 2011; Rickard & Pan, 2018), and book chapters (e.g., Delaney et al., 2010; Karpicke…”
Wang, L., Muenks, K. M., & Yan, V. X. (2023) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000813 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
LLM-Generated multiple choice practice quizzes for preclinical medical students
Camarata, T., McCoy, L., Rosenberg, R. L., Temprine, K., Brettschnieder, K., & Berman, J. M. (2025) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00106.2024 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Yan, V. X., Sana, F., & Carvalho, P. F. (2023) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/23727322231218906 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analytic review of classroom studies (Yang et al., 2021) showed retrieval practice in the form of quizzing enhanced learning by half a standard deviation (Hedges ’ g = 0.50).”
BackgroundInfluentialUchihara, T. (2022) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.3176 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Rummer, R., & Schweppe, J. (2021) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-021-00137-4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Eine aktuelle Metaanalyse zeigt aber auch gegenüber anderen Kontrollbedingungen – wie dem in Laborexperimenten typischerweise eingesetzten wiederholten Lesen – einen substantiellen Testungseffekt im Feld (Yang et al. 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Testing Effect in the Lecture Hall: Does it Depend on Learner Prerequisites?
Glaser, J., & Richter, T. (2022) · Psychology Learning & Teaching · doi:10.1177/14757257221136660 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“…robust phenomenon with medium to large effect sizes (g = 0.51, Adesope et al., 2017; g = 0.50 Rowland, 2014), also in real-world educational settings (g = 0.33, Yang et al., 2021) and psychology classes (d = 0.73, Schwieren et al., 2017; all effect sizes for comparisons of testing vs. restudying).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialStandardized Test Proficiency in Public Montessori Schools
Snyder, A. L., Tong, X., & Lillard, A. S. (2021) · Journal of School Choice · doi:10.1080/15582159.2021.1958058 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Further, frequent testing is associated with better learning (Yang, Luo, Vadillo, Yu, & Shanks, 2021), and Montessori minimizes testing.”
Sun, Y., Shi, A., Zhao, W., Yang, Y., Li, B., Hu, X., Shanks, D. R., Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-022-09666-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Weißgerber, S. C., & Rummer, R. (2022) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101679 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Does the reactivity effect of judgments of learning transfer to learning of new information?
Li, B., Zhao, W., Shi, A., Zhong, Y., Hu, X., Liu, M., Luo, L., & Yang, C. (2023) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2023.2208792 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…have been conducted to figure out to what extent JOLs are accurate in reflecting actual memory status, to investigate mechanisms underlying JOL formation, and to explore the relations between metamemory monitoring and control (for reviews, Rhodes, 2016; Rhodes & Tauber, 2011; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSpaced Retrieval Practice: Can Restudying Trump Retrieval?
Higham, P. A., Fastrich, G. M., Potts, R., Murayama, K., Pickering, J. S., & Hadwin, J. A. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09809-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“This result is surprising given the long history of testing effects that have been obtained in over 100 years of memory research (see Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021 for reviews).”
ResultEndres, T., & Eitel, A. (2023) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4160 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Generalizability, transferability, and the practice-to-practice gap
de Leeuw, J. R., Motz, B. A., Fyfe, E. R., Carvalho, P. F., & Goldstone, R. L. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x21000406 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Retrieval Practice Hypothesis in Research on Learning by Teaching: Current Status and Challenges
Kobayashi, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.842668 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Rottman, B. M., Caddick, Z. A., Nokes‐Malach, T. J., & Fraundorf, S. H. (2023) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-023-00496-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Evidence indicates that greater frequency of testing yields deeper learning (Yang et al., 2021: EL 1).”
BackgroundAsher, M. W., Hartman, J. D., Blaser, M., Eichler, J. F., & Carvalho, P. F. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105387 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The Use of Retrieval Practice in the Health Professions: A State-of-the-Art Review
Serra, M. J., Kaminske, A. N., Nebel, C. L., & Coppola, K. M. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15070974 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…effect and retrieval practice found a reliable medium effect size of testing ( g = 0.50; Rowland, 2014), medium effect sizes when looking at the transfer of test-enhanced learning ( d = 0.40; Pan & Rickard, 2018) and a medium effect size in applied classroom settings ( g = 0.50; Yang et al., 2021).”
InfluentialGaudreau, P., Boileau, L., & Schellenberg, B. J. I. (2021) · Revue québécoise de psychologie · doi:10.7202/1084584ar · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Pretesting Enhances Learning in the Classroom
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, E. L. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09805-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Wu, X., Liu, H., Xiao, L., & Yao, M. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-01994-9 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…the review study about tests and test performance, test performance provides feedback to inform students about their actual learning level and may induce high test expectations, both of which are important motivators driving students to commit more effort to subsequent learning (Yang et al., 2021).”
Marten, P. L., & Stadtler, M. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108548 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Specific questions during retrieval practice are better for texts containing seductive details
Eitel, A., Endres, T., & Renkl, A. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3984 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The testing effect with free recall: Organization, attention, and order effects
Mulligan, N. W., Buchin, Z. L., & Zhang, A. L. (2022) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2022.104333 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Consequences of Endorsing the Individual Learning Styles Myth: Helpful, Harmful, or Harmless?
Yan, V. X., & Fralick, C. M. (2022) · Monographs in the psychology of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-90792-1_6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zhao, W., Xu, M., Xu, C., Li, B., Hu, X., Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11100190 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…learning or the testing effect refers to the fact that testing (i.e., retrieval practice) on studied information produces superior learning gains by comparison with restudying or other learning strategies (such as note making and concept mapping) (Roediger and Karpicke 2006b; Yang et al. 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialExamining Digital Nudges to Influence Pro-Environmental Behavior
Balakrishnan, J., Al-Ahmadi, S., Baabdullah, A. M., Al-Busaidi, A. S., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2025) · Journal of Computer Information Systems · doi:10.1080/08874417.2025.2526385 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Rey, R. T., Cranmer, G. A., Browning, B. W., & Sanderson, J. (2022) · International Journal of Sport Communication · doi:10.1123/ijsc.2021-0062 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Tomita, K. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10088-x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Francotte, E., Colognesi, S., & Coertjens, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1111420 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“This is referred to as the “test effect” (e.g., Adesope et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundImmediate Learning Benefits of Retrieval Tasks
Endres, T., Kubik, V., Koslowski, K., Hahne, F., & Renkl, A. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000280 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M. W., et al. (2024) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-024-00468-5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…assignments or activities that require students to practice retrieval more than students would on their own, students retain more course content and earn higher grades (e.g., Leeming, 2002; Lyle & Crawford, 2011; McDaniel et al., 2007; for a review, see Agarwal et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2021).”
Online Testing as a Means of Enhancing Students’ Academic Motivation during the Coronavirus Pandemic
Stoyanova, S. Y., & Giannouli, V. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13010025 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Evidence-based teaching in contact lenses education: Teaching and learning strategies
Zeri, F., Eperjesi, F., Woods, C. A., Bandlitz, S., Bhootra, A., Joshi, M. R., Nagra, M., Schweizer, H., & Naroo, S. A. (2023) · Contact Lens and Anterior Eye · doi:10.1016/j.clae.2023.101822 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Incorporating frequent quizzes into lectures may raise student academic achievements [68].”
BackgroundZeitlin, B. D., & Sadhak, N. D. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11371-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Indeed, in a recent systematic meta-analysis, Yang et al (2021) observed that not only does any level of spaced testing— active or passive—provide significantly better learning outcomes than no testing but some evidence suggests that matching spaced testing format and exam format – e.g.,…”
BackgroundInfluentialVoluntary E-Learning Exercises Support Students in Mastering Statistics
Schwerter, J., & Brahm, T. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-023-09714-1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Retrieval practice (or practice testing, self-testing), i.e., retrieving knowledge under study without any stakes, is one of the most efficient learning techniques for later retention (Donoghue & Hattie, 2021; Dunlosky et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2021).”
Effects of Test Anxiety on Self-Testing and Learning Performance
Liu, S., Zhao, W., Shanks, D. R., Hu, X., Luo, L., & Yang, C. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09882-1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“First, hundreds of studies have confirmed that testing can consolidate long-term retention of studied information, known as the backward testing effect (for reviews, see Karpicke, 2017; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021).”
InfluentialPlaying an Augmented Reality Escape Game Promotes Learning About Fake News
Buchner, J. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-024-09749-y · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Yang et al. (2021b) developed an educational online game called Trustme! and investigated its effectiveness measuring two learning outcomes: First, in accordance with the already mentioned studies (Basol et al., 2020; Roozenbeek & van der Linden, 2019b); Roozenbeek & Linden, 2019a); Yang et al.,…”
InfluentialAdaptation of quizzing in learning psychology concepts
Obergassel, N., Heitmann, S., Grund, A., Fries, S., Berthold, K., & Roelle, J. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102028 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A scoping review of research on individual differences in the testing effect paradigm
Smith-Peirce, R. N., & Butler, A. C. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102602 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Effects of retrieval practice on retention and application of complex educational concepts
Corral, D., & Carpenter, S. K. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102219 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Terracotta: A tool for conducting experimental research on student learning
Motz, B. A., Üner, Ö., Jankowski, H. E., Christie, M. A., Burgas, K., Orobitg, D. D. B., & McDaniel, M. A. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02164-8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Many studies have demonstrated that retrieval practice improves long-term retention, relative to re-reading the same material (Agarwal et al., 2021; Dunlosky et al., 2013; Moreira et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundShum, A., & Fryer, L. K. (2023) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102228 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Dang, X., Yang, C., & Chen, Y. (2021) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101079 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Indirekte Effekte von Abrufübungen – Intuitiv und doch häufig unterschätzt
Endres, T., & Renkl, A. (2021) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-021-00140-9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Learning neuroscience: Investigating influences of notetaking materials and individual differences
Wilson, J. T., Miller-Goldwater, H. E., Porter, B. M., & Bauer, P. (2023) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102243 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Alisoy, H. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3733146/v1 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Retrieval practice plus feedback benefits a third language vocabulary learning
Li, J., Zhang, E.-H., Zhang, H., Gou, H., & Cao, H.-W. (2022) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2022.2102172 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“For example, several meta-analytic studies have demonstrated that feedback led to better performance on a fi nal test in comparison with no feedback (Rowland, 2014; Schwieren et al., 2017; Wisniewski et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundRuitenburg, S. K., Ackermans, K., Kirschner, P. A., Jarodzka, H., & Camp, G. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102027 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zhang, H., Wang, X., Li, X., Zhai, J., Li, X., & Guo, Y. P. (2025) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-025-07116-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“However, there is a divergence regarding the impact of flipped classrooms on student workload compared to previous research findings [28–30], which may be related to students’ task-handling abilities.”
Jordan, N. C., Dyson, N. I., Devlin, B. L., & Gesuelli, K.-A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29195-1_14 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Kang, Y., Ha, H., & Lee, H. S. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09772-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The effect has been consistently shown not only in lab settings but also in classrooms (Schwieren et al., 2017; Sotola & Crede, 2021; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundFraundorf, S. H., Caddick, Z. A., Nokes‐Malach, T. J., & Rottman, B. M. (2023) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-023-00508-8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…the additional benefit from a second test (or from a second episode of practice more generally; Dunlosky & Hertzog, 1997, EL: 4; Koriat et al., 2002, EL: 3; Rawson & Dunlosky, 2011, EL: 3; Vaughn & Rawson, 2011, EL: 3; Yang et al., 2021: EL 1), such that additional tests yield diminishing returns.”
BackgroundInfluentialDo, N., Jin, T., Priest, R., Meredith, L. N., & Landers, R. N. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102572 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Eitel, A., Krebs, M.-C., & Schöne, C. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10045-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Accordingly, empirical evidence reveals the positive effects of techniques such as testing (e.g., Yang et al., 2021), self-explaining (Bisra et al., 2018), concept mapping (Schroeder et al., 2018), or drawing (Cromley et al., 2020).”
Using interleaved practice to foster spelling acquisition
Klimovich, M., & Richter, T. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102146 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Can tests improve learning in real university classrooms?
Lamotte, M., Izaute, M., & Darnon, C. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.1956939 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“effects than those administered outside the classroom (Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResultBarenberg, J., & Dutke, S. (2021) · Psychology Learning & Teaching · doi:10.1177/14757257211049312 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“This effect has frequently been replicated and recent reviews and meta-analyses corroborated its reliability (Dunlosky et al., 2013; Moreira et al., 2019; Roediger III & Butler, 2011; Rowland, 2014; Schwieren et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2021).”
ResultRenkl, A. (2023) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-023-00167-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Untersuchungsmethodische Moderatoren können zum Teil auch inhaltlich interpretiert werden, etwa wenn ein Effekt (z.B. von Testing) von der Art der Kontrollbedingung abhängt (z.B. Testing vs. keine Intervention oder aber elaborative Lernaktivität; Yang et al. 2021); man kann dann sagen, gegenüber „was genau“ etwas im M…”
BackgroundTiming of feedback and retrieval practice: a laboratory study with EFL students
Aljabri, S. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03983-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…practice over restudying for long-term retention (Agarwal et al., 2021; Aljabri, 2024; Clark and Svinicki, 2014; Dirkx et al., 2014; McDaniel and Little, 2019; Pastötter et al., 2013; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006b; Rummer et al., 2019; Schwieren et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2021; Yigit et al., 2014).”
Retrieval‐based learning in special education
Tempel, T., & Sollich, S. (2023) · Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs · doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12594 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Individual differences in the reactivity effect of judgments of learning: Cognitive factors
Zhao, W., Liu, S., Tian, X., Li, B., Shanks, D. R., Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2024) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2024.104574 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…metacognitive judgments (e.g., prospective estimates of the likelihood of remembering a studied item in a later memory test, or retrospective confidence ratings about decision accuracy) (Bjork et al., 2013; Dunlosky & Tauber, 2016; Koriat, 1997; Li, Hu, et al., 2024; Yang, Yu, et al., 2021).”
Does technology-based non-interactive teaching enhance students’ learning in the classroom?
Sibley, L., Russ, H., Ahmad, G., Baumgärtner, B., Bräutigam, D., Brümmer, S., Bussmann, H., Erb, N., Evans, L., Fischer, S., et al. (2024) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100233 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
What constrains people’s ability to learn about the testing effect through task experience?
Rivers, M. L., Dunlosky, J. T., & McLeod, M. (2022) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2022.2120204 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…across a wide variety of learners, materials, contexts, and outcome measures (for reviews, see Agarwal et al., 2021; Dunlosky et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2021), and students’ self-reported use of self-testing strategies are positively associated with academic performance (e.g., Hartwig &…”
BackgroundThe Testing Effect in the Lecture Hall: Does it Transfer to Content Studied but Not Practiced?
Glaser, J., & Richter, T. (2023) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283231218943 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…testing seems to be more effective than restudying in different age groups, with different types of learning material, and in the laboratory, with an overall medium effect size (Hedge ’ s g = 0.50; Rowland, 2014) and classroom settings ( g = 0.33; Yang et al., 2021; see also Agarwal et al., 2021).”
InfluentialNeural correlates of retrieval practice on the learning and memory retention of L3 French vocabulary
Li, J., Zhang, E.-H., Zhang, H., He, X., Li, D., & Cao, H.-W. (2023) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2023.2166943 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“In recent years, a large body of evidence (Adesope et al., 2017; Karpicke,2017 ; Rickard & Pan, 2018; Roediger & Butler, 2011; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021) has demonstrated the reliability and generalizability of the retrieval practice e ff ect, across di ff erent populations (e.g. from children…”
Ofek-Shanny, Y. (2023) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2023.102490 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Yin, Y., Fan, T., Zhao, W., Zheng, J., Hu, X., Su, N., Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2024) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-024-09377-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…with the lab findings that self-testing is an effective approach to improving learning outcomes (Dun - losky et al., 2013; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021), and inconsistent with survey studies conducted by Hartwig and Dunlosky ( 2012) and several other studies (Geller et al., 2018;…”
InfluentialThe benefits of elaborative encoding over retrieval practice for associative learning
Jaeger, A., Martins, T. H. P. G., Rodrigues, J. P. P., Muniz, B. F. B., Fonseca, A. L. S. D. S., & Gonçalves, A. D. O. (2024) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-024-01671-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“For these reasons, it has been considered a promising strategy to promote learning in educational contexts (Agar-wal et al., 2021; Jaeger et al., 2024; Roediger & Pyc, 2012; Yang et al., 2021).”
You've got some explaining to do: Effects of explanation prompts on science text comprehension
McCarthy, K. S., & Hinze, S. R. (2021) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3875 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Yan, V. X., Schuetze, B. A., & Rea, S. D. (2023) · Human Arenas · doi:10.1007/s42087-023-00383-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…reviews and meta-analyses about the benefits and boundary conditions of retrieval practice, interleaving, and spacing (Agarwal et al., 2021; Brunmair & Richter, 2019; Carpenter, 2012, 2017; Carpenter et al., 2022; Cepeda et al., 2006, 2008; Dunlosky & Rawson, 2015; Kang, 2016; Yang et al., 2021).”
- Authors
- Yang, C., Luo, L., Vadillo, M. A., Yu, R., & Shanks, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Beijing Normal University (CN)
- Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (ES)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- University College London (GB)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2021-04
- Volume
- 147
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 399-435
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W3134904819
- Cited by
- 333
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 25.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2019NTSS28)
- Natural Science Foundation of China (31671130; 32000742)
- NUS FASS RSB-PDF Scheme under WBS (C-581-000-207-532; C-581-000-777-532)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/S014616/1)
- MadrID Science Foundation (2016-T1/SOC-1395)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- testing effect, quizzing, classroom learning, academic performance, long-term retention, restudying, corrective feedback, transfer-appropriate processing, motivation, boundary conditions, learning strategies
- MeSH terms
- Academic Success, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Students, Test Taking Skills
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
