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Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: a systematic and meta-analytic review

Yang, Chunliang, Luo, Liang, Vadillo, Miguel A., Yu, Rongjun, Shanks, David R.·2021·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/bul0000309

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Abstract

Over the last century hundreds of studies have demonstrated that testing is an effective intervention to enhance long-term retention of studied knowledge and facilitate mastery of new information, compared with restudying and many other learning strategies (e.g., concept mapping), a phenomenon termed the testing effect. How robust is this effect in applied settings beyond the laboratory? The current review integrated 48,478 students' data, extracted from 222 independent studies, to investigate the magnitude, boundary conditions, and psychological underpinnings of test-enhanced learning in the classroom. The results show that overall testing (quizzing) raises student academic achievement to a medium extent (g = 0.499). The magnitude of the effect is modulated by a variety of factors, including learning strategy in the control condition, test format consistency, material matching, provision of corrective feedback, number of test repetitions, test administration location and timepoint, treatment duration, and experimental design. The documented findings support 3 theories to account for the classroom testing effect: additional exposure, transfer-appropriate processing, and motivation. In addition to their implications for theory development, these results have practical significance for enhancing teaching practice and guiding education policy and highlight important directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

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Laronze, F., Reynolds, A., & N’Kaoua, B. (2025) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-025-01143-4
“…passive/active modality in quizzes, some works have studied these effects by comparing students taking part in paper-and-pencil quiz-type activities with students engaging activities such as re-reading lectures, and watching videos, which are considered to be passive activities (Yang et al., 2021).”
Influential
The facilitation effect of key-step retrieval practice on learning one-variable quadratic equations
Qu, K., Ma, R., & Yu, Y. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09759-y
“Subsequent research has employed a wide range of factual and conceptual materials, including word lists, paired learning, and text articles, to validate the positive effects of retrieval practice on memory (Li et al., 2016; Miyatsu & McDaniel, 2019; Yang et al., 2021).”
Additional file 1 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678252
Additional file 2 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678255
Does Processing Level at Retrieval Moderate the Testing Effect? Evidence of an Asymmetry Between Study-Based Encoding and Retrieval-Based EncodingPreprint
Buchin, Z. L. (2022) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/xh25a
Additional file 4 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678261
Additional file 5 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678264
Additional file 11 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678282
Additional file 8 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678273
Additional file 7 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678270
Additional file 3 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678258
Additional file 10 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678279
Additional file 6 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678267
Additional file 9 of Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty?
Bego, C. R., Lyle, K. B., Ralston, P. A. S., Immekus, J. C., Chastain, R. J., Haynes, L. D., Hoyt, L. K., Pigg, R. M., Rabin, S. D., Scobee, M., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26678276
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Immersive Learning in Higher Education: Integrating Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality
Stevanović, M., Nikolić-Ristić, D., Kisić, E., Mladenović, M., Vuković, V., & Pejić, P. (2025) · International Conference on e-Learning (eLearning) · doi:10.46793/elearning2025.324s
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Peterson, D. J., & Wissman, K. T. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2619444
“When explaining why testing improves memory, researchers may point to theoretical perspectives such as the episodic context account (Karpicke et al., 2014) or transfer appropriate processing (Yang et al., 2021).”
Test preparation in a high-stakes setting: experiments with testing and restudy strategies
Hao, Z., Baird, J., & Masri, Y. E. (2026) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/03054985.2026.2618588
Still in scrubs: an autoethnographic narrative of teaching, learning, and leading in virtual spaces
Wilson, G. P. (2026) · Journal of Leadership Education · doi:10.1108/jole-10-2025-0133
An Analysis of Babbel Apps in Reading
Daulay, S. H., Berutu, H., Purnomo, M. D., Dalimunte, M., Apriani, E., Shaumiwaty, S., & Izar, J. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-3366-3.ch004
The role of reactivations during consolidation in the structure and accessibility of episodic autobiographical memories
Lenormand, D., Gaston‐Bellegarde, A., Orriols, É., & Piolino, P. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-37539-2
Can Structured Gamified Engagement Improve Attainment in High-Stakes, Examination-Dominated Postgraduate Accounting Courses?Preprint
O'Higgins, D. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6401881
Can Structured Gamified Engagement Improve Attainment in High-Stakes, Examination-Dominated Postgraduate Accounting Courses?Preprint
O'Higgins, D. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6401879
Retrieval practice prevents stress-induced inference impairment by restoring rapid memory reactivationPreprint
Guo, J., Chen, R., Zhao, Q., Sun, X., & Liu, W. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.110350.1
Retrieval practice prevents stress-induced inference impairment by restoring rapid memory reactivationPreprint
Guo, J., Chen, R., Zhao, Q., Sun, X., & Liu, W. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.110350
University Students’ Perceptions on the Use of PutraPacer for Differentiated Assessment
Khambari, M. N. M., Majuddin, C., Wong, S. L., Norowi, N. M., & Khambari, N. (2026) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-3901-4_33-1
Development and Preliminary Outcomes of a Parent-Led Intervention for Malaysian School-Age Children With Cleft Lip and/or Palate
Yusof, S., Ibrahim, H. A., & Bressmann, T. (2026) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2026_lshss-25-00133
How will I be graded? The past, present, and future of research on grading policies and student motivation in secondary and postsecondary education
Sievers, J., Muenks, K. M., & Goldstein, M. G. (2026) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2026.2636491 · Cited by 1
“For example, some students may view frequent quiz-zing as an instructor’s attempt to help students learn by giving them many opportunities for practice, whereas others may view it as an instructor’s attempt to identify the smart-est students or cull the weaker students (Yang et al., 2021).”
Developing inclusive and reflective practices in research methods and projects teaching: Case studies
James, A. I., Serbic, D., Bourne, V. J., Fielding, J. L., Dobrescu, A., Burgess, K., Allen, P., Barr, P., Ghazali-Mohammed, Z., & Roux, A. R. (2026) · Psychology Teaching Review · doi:10.53841/bpsptr.2026.32.1.87

Authors: Yang, C., Luo, L., Vadillo, M. A., Yu, R., & Shanks, D. R.
Affiliations: Beijing Normal University (CN)
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (ES)
National University of Singapore (SG)
University College London (GB)
ORCID: Yang, Chunliang
Luo, Liang
Vadillo, Miguel A.
Yu, Rongjun
Shanks, David R.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2021-04
Volume: 147
Issue: 4
Pages: 399-435
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000309
OpenAlex: W3134904819
Cited by: 333
References: 71
Citations by year: 2026: 57 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 19
FWCI: 25.11
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
Funders: Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2019NTSS28)
Natural Science Foundation of China (31671130; 32000742)
NUS FASS RSB-PDF Scheme under WBS (C-581-000-207-532; C-581-000-777-532)
Economic and Social Research Council (ES/S014616/1)
MadrID Science Foundation (2016-T1/SOC-1395)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Keywords: testing effect, quizzing, classroom learning, academic performance, long-term retention, restudying, corrective feedback, transfer-appropriate processing, motivation, boundary conditions, learning strategies
MeSH terms: Academic Success, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Students, Test Taking Skills

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Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: a systematic and meta-analytic review

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