The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: a systematic and meta-analytic review
Abstract
Over the last century hundreds of studies have demonstrated that testing is an effective intervention to enhance long-term retention of studied knowledge and facilitate mastery of new information, compared with restudying and many other learning strategies (e.g., concept mapping), a phenomenon termed the testing effect. How robust is this effect in applied settings beyond the laboratory? The current review integrated 48,478 students' data, extracted from 222 independent studies, to investigate the magnitude, boundary conditions, and psychological underpinnings of test-enhanced learning in the classroom. The results show that overall testing (quizzing) raises student academic achievement to a medium extent (g = 0.499). The magnitude of the effect is modulated by a variety of factors, including learning strategy in the control condition, test format consistency, material matching, provision of corrective feedback, number of test repetitions, test administration location and timepoint, treatment duration, and experimental design. The documented findings support 3 theories to account for the classroom testing effect: additional exposure, transfer-appropriate processing, and motivation. In addition to their implications for theory development, these results have practical significance for enhancing teaching practice and guiding education policy and highlight important directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Yang et al. (2021), in a large-scale meta-analysis of studies conducted in real classrooms, confirmed that the effect is observable across educational levels and learning outcomes—ranging from factual knowledge to conceptual understanding and even problem-solving.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
Citations
Cites
A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement
Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C. S., Hinojosa, C. P., et al. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y · Cited by 1,513 · cited 1×
“In addition, as noted by many educators and researchers, “in real-world [educational] settings, a fifth of a standard deviation [0.20 SD] is a large effect” (Dynarski, 2017; Yeager et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMotivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review
Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315617832 · Cited by 607
Averaging correlation coefficients: Should Fisher’s z transformation be used?
Silver, N. C., & Dunlap, W. P. (1987) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.146 · Cited by 606
Correcting for Bias in Psychology: A Comparison of Meta-Analytic Methods
Carter, E. C., Schönbrodt, F. D., Gervais, W. M., & Hilgard, J. (2019) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919847196 · Cited by 588
Testing the testing effect in the classroom
McDaniel, M. A., Anderson, J. L., Derbish, M. H., & Morrisette, N. (2007) · European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440701326154 · Cited by 563
Clickers in college classrooms: Fostering learning with questioning methods in large lecture classes
Mayer, R. E., Stull, A. T., DeLeeuw, K. E., Almeroth, K. C., Bimber, B., Chun, D. M., Bulger, M., Campbell, J., Knight, A., & Zhang, H. (2008) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.04.002 · Cited by 480
Test-enhanced learning in the classroom: Long-term improvements from quizzing.
Roediger, H. L., III, Agarwal, P. K., McDaniel, M. A., & McDermott, K. B. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0026252 · Cited by 416
McShane, B. B., Böckenholt, U., & Hansen, K. T. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616662243 · Cited by 398
The Positive and Negative Consequences of Multiple-Choice Testing.
Roediger, H. L., III, & Marsh, E. J. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1155 · Cited by 386
King, A. (1992) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312029002303 · Cited by 379
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–334 of 334
How Students Study: Who Uses What Strategies and Does It Matter?
Cho, K. W. (2026) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/14697874261437063
Virtual Reality in Education: A Stratified Meta-Analysis of Experimental Rigor and Bias
Layadi, S., Huguet, P., Pavic, K., & Chevalère, J. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10130-x · Cited by 2
Ophuis‐Cox, F. H. A., Catrysse, L., & Camp, G. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102377
Li, A., Wang, Y., Zhao, W., Fiechter, J. L., Kornell, N., Shanks, D. R., Luo, L., & Yang, C. (2026) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-026-09462-4
AI-Powered Study Assistant for Exams: QuizAI
Nguyen, T. H. A., & Chung, S. (2026) · Journal of Information Systems Applied Research and Analytics · doi:10.62273/fhro6233
DuBois, D., Triki, A., & Kouhizadeh, M. (2026) · International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management · doi:10.1108/ijpdlm-08-2025-0423
A Special Issue Introduction: Educational Applications of Cognitive Psychology
Little, J. L., & Bjork, E. L. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16050713
“Since then, it has been shown with a wide variety of materials, contexts, and age groups (Adesope et al., 2017; Agarwal et al., 2021; Pan & Rickard, 2018; Roediger & Butler, 2011; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021) and thus has clear implications for education.”
Hilmina, H., & Ismail;, A. A. Q. (2024) · Journal of Chemical Learning Innovation. · doi:10.37251/jocli.v1i2.3026 · Cited by 1
Yang, Y., Zhang, Y. P., Ma, N., & Zhang, J. Y. (2026) · International Conference on Educational and Information Technology · doi:10.1109/iceit68991.2026.11521646
Shen, D.-D., & Chang, C.-S. (2026) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587919.2026.2668324
“Although traditionally assessed primarily through learning outcomes rather than learning processes (Yang et al., 2021), the evaluation of learning effectiveness in online environments has expanded to incorporate indicators such as online quizzes, discussion participation, and learning progress…”
First Experiences with a Tool for Collaborative Creation of Quiz Questions by Students
Kubincová, Z., & Krupkova, K. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-92-0042-9_3
Laronze, F., & N'Kaoua, B. (2026) · International Journal of Disability, Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2026.2678833
Evaluation of a Computer-based Retinal Laser Simulation Training Course in Nigeria
Adenekan, A. O., Alabi, A. A., Abdulsalam, S., Borodo, S. B., Mensah, E., & Scanlon, P. (2026) · Nigerian Journal of Vitreoretinal Diseases · doi:10.4103/njvd.njvd_2_26
Testing as a learning tool in special education
Tempel, T., & Häberle, T. (2026) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2026.2684581
“This benefit of retrieval-based learning is often referred to as the testing effect (for a recent meta-analysis see Yang et al., 2021).”
Impact of quiz frequency on knowledge retention among high school students in Shenyang
Sun, H., junran, S. O. N. G., Zhang, A., & wang, M. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107312
Beyond Assessment: The Pedagogical Role of Digital Quizzes in Engineering Education
Karunaratne, T., Enoksson, F., Davis, R. L., Land, A., Bern, C., & Blomstervall, J. Y. (2026) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon67543.2026.11574346
“…and engineering competencies: The tension between what digital quizzes can theoretically support and how they are pragmatically designed and used is a gap that raises broader questions in assessment design, where efficiency and automation are often prioritised over fostering deep learning [14].”
Huesca, G., Martínez-Treviño, Y., González, C. G. J., Delgado, D. A. C., Navarrete, C., Cedillo-Hernández, A., & Meza, R. R. Q. (2026) · AI · doi:10.3390/ai7070248 · Cited by 1
“Previous studies have demonstrated the benefits of using quizzes to enhance learning [26,27].”
Shumaker, M. D., Ariel, R., Hernandez, M., Hadley, L., & Tauber, S. K. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10232266/v1
Beyond metacognition: Strategy selection as strategic calculus in self-regulated learning
Liu, S., Yang, C., & Shanks, D. R. (2026) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2026.06.001
Çiğdem, H., & Öztürk, G. (2026) · Kuramsal Eğitimbilim · doi:10.30831/akukeg.1814155
Petchamé, J., Novkovic, D., & Kompen, R. T. (2026) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su18157785
Gavens, N., Doignon‐Camus, N., Quiñones, E. J. M., Roth, R., & Popa-Roch, M. (2026) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-026-01169-z
“Beyond the direct testing effect, retrieval enhances learning indirectly through various processes including metacognitive monitoring, accurately predicting future performance or reducing test anxiety (Roediger et al., 2011a, 2011b; Yang et al., 2021).”
InfluentialInstagram in Histology: Enhancing Medical Education in Brazil
de Queiroz, G. S., Figueiredo, G. P., Reis, M. E. P. D. C., Coutinho, G. M. D. Q., Vieira, G. V., Perdoná, G. D. S. C., Osako, M. K., & Sales, K. U. (2026) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-026-02844-y
Liu, S., Huang, S., Han, J., Wang, X., Long, S., & Cao, H.-W. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16081438
“…learning, the retrieval practice effect, or the testing effect (Adesope et al., 2017; Karpicke, 2017; Karpicke et al., 2014; Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Rickard & Pan, 2018; Roediger & Butler, 2011; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; Rowland, 2014; van den Broek et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2021).”
Russ, H., Endres, T., Sibley, L., Flegr, S., Kühn, J., Hoogerheide, V., Scheiter, K., & Lachner, A. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102462
Browning, J. (2026) · The Pinnacle A Journal by Scholar-Practitioners · doi:10.61643/c69562
Learning from mistakes: Objective and subjective error magnitudes predict the testing effect
Shi, A., & Liu, X. L. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-03009-z · Cited by 1
“This effect size is consistent with the typical magnitude of the testing effect reported in existing meta-analyses (Adesope et al., 2017; Rowland, 2014; Yang et al., 2021).”
Cueva, E. J. H., Merino, E. M. O., Namcela, W. D. R., & González, J. R. E. (2026) · Revista Interdisciplinaria de Ciencias de la Educación Salud y Sociología (RICESO) · doi:10.66136/bekryb54
“La evidencia experimental muestra que espaciar los episodios de recuperación mejora la retención frente a la práctica masiva (Latimier et al., 2021) y que las pruebas breves aplicadas en el aula elevan el aprendizaje de manera robusta (Yang et al., 2021).”
Ponerse dificultades y cometer errores: la vía para estudiar mejor, según la ciencia
Marín, E., Mera, Y., & Dianova, N. (2026) · The Conversation · doi:10.64628/aao.xek6wfjcs
Холтаева, Ф., & Динмухаммадиев, Н. (2026) · Бюллетень педагогов нового Узбекистана · doi:10.70413/yopa-v04-i10-s59529
Hu, Q., Jähnichen, T., Martínez‐Aviñó, A., Kong, V. A., & Fung, F. M. (2026) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6c00694
Schutte, B. G., de Jonge, T. H. S., Müller, E., & van Wermeskerken, M. (2026) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70299
Zaine, I. S., Hamid, H. A., Shah, A. Z., & Jusoh, R. M. (2026) · International Journal of Modern Education · doi:10.35631/ijmoe.831098
Ruitenburg, S. K., Goos, M., Lambert, G., Kirschner, P. A., Jarodzka, H., & Camp, G. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10225-5
“Indeed, Yang et al. (2021 ) found that the testing effect differed between quiz formats (e.g., matching vs. free recall).”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Yang, C., Luo, L., Vadillo, M. A., Yu, R., & Shanks, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Beijing Normal University (CN)
- Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (ES)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- University College London (GB)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2021-04
- Volume
- 147
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 399-435
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W3134904819
- Cited by
- 333
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 19
- FWCI
- 25.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2019NTSS28)
- Natural Science Foundation of China (31671130; 32000742)
- NUS FASS RSB-PDF Scheme under WBS (C-581-000-207-532; C-581-000-777-532)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/S014616/1)
- MadrID Science Foundation (2016-T1/SOC-1395)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- testing effect, quizzing, classroom learning, academic performance, long-term retention, restudying, corrective feedback, transfer-appropriate processing, motivation, boundary conditions, learning strategies
- MeSH terms
- Academic Success, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Students, Test Taking Skills
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
