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The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Open accessAbstract
The worked example effect indicates that showing students worked examples (high guidance) is superior to problem solving (low guidance) which provides no guidance, whereas the generation effect suggests that self-generating items (low guidance) is superior to studying the externally presented answers (high guidance). This obvious contradiction between the two effects was hypothesized to be resolved by suggesting that the materials used had different levels of element interactivity. For the worked example effect, materials may be high in element interactivity, while, for the generation effect, simpler materials are used. With an increase of learner expertise, the worked example effect may be eliminated or reversed because expertise reduces element interactivity, but the generation effect should be still robust. Five 2 (levels of guidance: low and high) x 2 (levels of element interactivity: low and high) mixed factorial experiments were conducted to investigate the hypotheses. In Experiments 1 to 3, the level of learner expertise gradually increased in the domain of geometry with the results supporting hypotheses. The interaction of guidance and element interactivity was obtained with novices but the worked example effect that contributed to the interaction was eliminated or reversed with more knowledgeable students. Experiments 4 to 5 were designed to replicate the results of the first three experiments by testing students in the domain of trigonometry on both immediate and delayed tests. The results were replicated not only on an immediate test, but also on a delayed test. When combined, the results of all five experiments indicated that levels of element interactivity might be a key factor when deciding on levels of instructional guidance.
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“As an example, to memorise the formula of the area of a parallelogram, the base × the height, included 4 interacting elements for a novice - the area, the base, the multiplication relation, and the height.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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“Finally, the two separate area values added together involved another 3 elements giving, in total, about 25 interactive elements.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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“The materials for memorisation were estimated as low in element interactivity.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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“However, when novices need to calculate the area of a composite shape, element interactivity is higher compared to memorising formulae.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2015-08
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 689-704
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2142219189
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 13.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Loughborough University Research Repository (Loughborough University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney)
- Funders
- China Scholarship Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- worked example effect, generation effect, element interactivity, instructional guidance, learner expertise, geometry learning, trigonometry learning, problem solving, worked examples
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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