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The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
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The worked example effect indicates that showing students worked examples (high guidance) is superior to problem solving (low guidance) which provides no guidance, whereas the generation effect suggests that self-generating items (low guidance) is superior to studying the externally presented answers (high guidance). This obvious contradiction between the two effects was hypothesized to be resolved by suggesting that the materials used had different levels of element interactivity. For the worked example effect, materials may be high in element interactivity, while, for the generation effect, simpler materials are used. With an increase of learner expertise, the worked example effect may be eliminated or reversed because expertise reduces element interactivity, but the generation effect should be still robust. Five 2 (levels of guidance: low and high) x 2 (levels of element interactivity: low and high) mixed factorial experiments were conducted to investigate the hypotheses. In Experiments 1 to 3, the level of learner expertise gradually increased in the domain of geometry with the results supporting hypotheses. The interaction of guidance and element interactivity was obtained with novices but the worked example effect that contributed to the interaction was eliminated or reversed with more knowledgeable students. Experiments 4 to 5 were designed to replicate the results of the first three experiments by testing students in the domain of trigonometry on both immediate and delayed tests. The results were replicated not only on an immediate test, but also on a delayed test. When combined, the results of all five experiments indicated that levels of element interactivity might be a key factor when deciding on levels of instructional guidance.
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“As an example, to memorise the formula of the area of a parallelogram, the base × the height, included 4 interacting elements for a novice - the area, the base, the multiplication relation, and the height.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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“Finally, the two separate area values added together involved another 3 elements giving, in total, about 25 interactive elements.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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“The materials for memorisation were estimated as low in element interactivity.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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“However, when novices need to calculate the area of a composite shape, element interactivity is higher compared to memorising formulae.”
From A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity (2023) · cites this paper as Chen et al. (2015)
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BackgroundInfluentialIntegrating Clinical Reasoning Skills in a Pre‐professional Undergraduate Human Anatomy Course
Anderson, M., Hills‐Meyer, P. R., Stamm, J. M., & Brown, K. (2022) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2050 · Cited by 11
Chen, O., Woolcott, G., & Kalyuga, S. (2021) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2021.1915098 · Cited by 11
“The experimental design was drawn from Chen et al. (2015).”
Self-citationAero Python: classical aerodynamics of potential flow using Python
Barba, L. A., & Mesnard, O. (2019) · Journal of Open Source Education · doi:10.21105/jose.00045 · Cited by 11
25 principles for effective instructional video design
Fyfield, M., Henderson, M., & Phillips, M. (2019) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2019.299 · Cited by 19
Park, E., & Cheon, J. (2024) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331241291174 · Cited by 15
“…underscore the necessity for targeted instruction that focuses on how program components interact systematically, enhancing both functional and systematic debugging skills, as system knowledge and strategic knowledge are intimately linked (Chen et al., 2015; Li et al., 2019; Sweller, 2020).”
Horan, E. M., & Carr, M. (2018) · International Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.17583/ijep.2018.3672 · Cited by 10
Generating Causal Relations in Scientific Texts: The Long-Term Advantages of Successful Generation
Abel, R., & Hänze, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00199 · Cited by 10
An Integrated Human Cognitive Architecture
Sweller, J. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10089-1 · Cited by 14
“Separately, increasing knowledge held in long-term memory, also reduces element interactivity and so eliminates or reverses the effect (Chen et al., 2015, 2016a, 2016b).”
Self-citationRuitenburg, S. K., Ackermans, K., Kirschner, P. A., Jarodzka, H., & Camp, G. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102027 · Cited by 13
Darejeh, A., Marcus, N., & Sweller, J. (2022) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3917/anpsy1.223.0405 · Cited by 8
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory: What We Learn and How We Learn
Sweller, J. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_50-1 · Cited by 8
Self-citationDeveloping Problem-Solving Expertise for Word Problems
Ngu, B., & Phan, H. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.725280 · Cited by 9
Martella, A. M., Swisher, M., & Mayer, R. E. (2024) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2024.102316 · Cited by 10
Fang, X., Ng, D. T. K., Tam, W. T., & Yuen, M. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10513-x · Cited by 6
“Based on these learning difficulties, Chen et al. (2015) pointed out that most teachers emphasized the formula when teaching perimeter and area.”
Augmented reality and worked examples: Targeting organic chemistry competence
Elford, D., Lancaster, S. J., & Jones, G. A. (2023) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2023.100021 · Cited by 7
Sobre la diversidad del olivar andaluz: del territorio al paisaje (El caso de la provincia de Jaén)
Martínez, J. D. S., & Almonacid, A. G. (2017) · Estudios Geográficos · doi:10.3989/estgeogr.201718 · Cited by 6
Emotional Design in Concept Maps – No Support but Also No Burden
Lenski, S., & Großschedl, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.807627 · Cited by 6
Lim, S.-A., Jung, J. Y., & Kalyuga, S. (2023) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-023-09616-w · Cited by 6
“That is, by making all the required knowledge (e.g., problem-solving steps) explicitly available to learners upfront, worked examples may provide an efficient way for learners to acquire the relevant organized knowledge structures or schemas in the task domain (Chen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEffects of Worked Example on Students’ Learning Outcomes in Complex Algebraic Problems
Adeniji, S. M., & Baker, P. (2023) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2023.16214a · Cited by 6
Ingebrigtsen, M., Miland, Å. O., Bastesen, J., & Sæle, R. G. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70086 · Cited by 9
Learning linear equations: capitalizing on cognitive load theory and learning by analogy
Ngu, B. H., & Phan, H. P. (2021) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2021.1902007 · Cited by 6
“Learning to memorize a mathematical formula such as A = l× h (where A = Area of a parallelogram, l = length of the base, and h = height) is regarded as low in element interactivity (Chen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundFaded-Example Effects in Individual or Group Work Settings
Kusuma, I. A., & Retnowati, E. (2021) · International Conference on Educational and Information Technology · doi:10.1109/iceit51700.2021.9375528 · Cited by 5
“This effect can be found on novice learners or complex material [8].”
BackgroundMethodRETRACTED ARTICLE: Multimedia Effect in Problem Solving: a Meta-analysis
Hu, L., Chen, G., Li, P., & Huang, J. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09490-4 · Cited by 4
RetractedProfiles of public attitude change regarding stuttering
Louis, K. O. S., Abdalla, F., Abdi, S., Aliveto, E., Beste-Guldborg, A., Błachnio, A., Bolton-Grant, B., Eisert, S., Flynn, T., Gottwald, S. R., et al. (2024) · Language and Health · doi:10.1016/j.laheal.2024.08.001 · Cited by 5
Technology-enhanced mathematics learning: A perspective from Cognitive Load Theory
Chen, O., & Woolcott, G. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1320/1/012064 · Cited by 5
“Chen et al. assigned students to worked example group and problem solving group for calculating the area of composite figures [6].”
BackgroundSelf-citationAnalysis of Calculus Textbook Problems via Bloom's Taxonomy
Alayont, F., Karaali, G., & Pehlivan, L. (2022) · PRIMUS · doi:10.1080/10511970.2022.2048931 · Cited by 5
“More specifically “complex material may need explicit guidance to assist learners to understand the material” [7].”
BackgroundSweller, J., & Ayres, P. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199841332.013.17 · Cited by 5
Self-citationNgu, B. H., & Phan, H. P. (2023) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-022-00670-5 · Cited by 5
“Research has indicated that the impact of instructional design would be more pronounced for the complex problems rather than simple problems (Ngu et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2015; Sweller et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFirdaus, M., Mukhtar, M., & Darari, M. B. (2024) · Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies · doi:10.47760/cognizance.2024.v04i01.003 · Cited by 4
Kurban, F. (2024) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/24.82.202 · Cited by 6
“Worked examples and self-explanation have a positive effect on learning conceptual and procedural knowledge (Atkinson et al., 2000; Renkl, 2017; Wittwer & Renkl, 2010; Wynder et al., 2017) and on acquiring complex skills, including spatial skills (Chen et al., 2015; Pillay, 1994) .”
BackgroundEffects of concept maps and worked examples in learning skills in mathematics
Van Orman, D. S. J., Wong, R. M., Carbonneau, K. J., & Adesope, O. O. (2022) · School Science and Mathematics · doi:10.1111/ssm.12524 · Cited by 3
Miró, À., Alier, M., Chen, O., Serrano, J. M., & Castro-Alonso, J. C. (2025) · Journal of Curriculum Studies · doi:10.1080/00220272.2025.2585442 · Cited by 3
Self-citationBarzegari, M., & Geris, L. (2021) · Journal of Open Source Education · doi:10.21105/jose.00089 · Cited by 3
“The teaching strategy is based on the worked-example effect (Chen et al., 2015), in which an example of parameter estimation is fully implemented to allow students to play with and modify the code to have their own reflection in class discussions.”
MethodLa mediación pedagógica y su influencia en el desarrollo de capacidades
Dávila, L. A. O. (2022) · Ciencia Latina Revista Científica Multidisciplinar · doi:10.37811/cl_rcm.v5i6.1480 · Cited by 7
Reconceptualizing Cognitive Load Theory
Kalyuga, S., & Plass, J. L. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190078539.003.0007 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2015-08
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 689-704
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2142219189
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 13.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Loughborough University Research Repository (Loughborough University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney)
- Funders
- China Scholarship Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- worked example effect, generation effect, element interactivity, instructional guidance, learner expertise, geometry learning, trigonometry learning, problem solving, worked examples
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