Cited by 537Memory and Neural MechanismsAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesBehavioral and Psychological Studies

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Studies of fear as an acquirable drive: I. Fear as motivation and fear-reduction as reinforcement in the learning of new responses.

Miller, Neal E.·1948·Journal of Experimental Psychology

DOI 10.1037/h0058455

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New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis.
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Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist.
Watson, J. B. (1919) · J B Lippincott Company eBooks · doi:10.1037/10016-000 · Cited by 1,095
A stimulus-response analysis of anxiety and its role as a reinforcing agent.
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Fear as an intervening variable in avoidance conditioning.
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Personality characteristics of accident repeating children.
Krall, V. (1953) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0054392 · Cited by 70
Nothing to fear? Neural systems supporting avoidance behavior in healthy youths
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“…of an unconditioned aversive stimulus (e.g., shock) via classical conditioning (factor 1) and termination of the threatening conditioned cue along with fear serves as a negative reinforcer for avoidance (factor 2) (Mowrer and Lamoreaux, 1946; Mowrer, 1947; Miller, 1948; Rescorla and Solomon, 1967).”
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“…been recognized that when a neutral stimulus is paired with an aversive outcome (eg shock), the stimulus itself can acquire conditioned aversive qualitiesFsuch that it now can motivate and reinforce instrumental behavior that leads to its termination (Miller, 1948; McAllister and McAllister, 1971).”
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“Psychologists have shown that a negative message which succeeds in arousing anxiety or fear creates a secondary drive and a reduction of the fear or anxiety thus created has been shown to constitute an effective kind of reinforcement [10, 11].”
Background
The role of shock in reinforcement.
Gibson, E. J. (1952) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0057667 · Cited by 61
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“, freezing) which may interfere with the instrumental avoidance response and reinforcing safety-seeking behaviours in fearful states or environments [294, 296], consistent with theories of opponent motivational processes [59, 285].”
Background
EFFECTS OF LONG‐TERM SHOCK AND ASSOCIATED STIMULI ON AGGRESSIVE AND MANUAL RESPONSES1
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“We are reminded that, prior to the cognitive revolution, the methods and theories of behaviourism were fruitfully employed to investigate affect and behaviour (e.g., Miller, 1948).”
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NURTURANCE AND NURTURANCE-WITHDRAWAL IN RELATION TO THE DEPENDENCY BEHAVIOR OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN1
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“…include non-associative learning (e.g. fear potentiated startle) (Brown et al., 1951; Davis, 1986), classical conditioning (e.g. Pavlovian fear conditioning) (Pavlov, 1927; Watson and Rayner, 2000), and instrumental learning tasks (e.g. active lever-press avoidance) (Miller, 1948; Mowrer, 1951).”
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“They were seeking generalizations, sometimes looking to build upon animal research findings [see discussion in Miller 1948], some times raising functional concerns for the study of attitudes [e.g., see: Katz 1960].”
Conditioned memory modulation, freezing, and avoidance as measures of amygdala-mediated conditioned fear.
Holahan, M., & White, N. (2002) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1006/nlme.2001.4012 · Cited by 55
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A test of the Taylor-Spence theory of anxiety.
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“The rationale behind this theory is that fear induces a feeling of unpleasantness, which the recipient will act to resolve or reduce [38, 78, 114, 117].”
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The effects of prior fear experiences on acquired-drive learning.
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Classical-classical transfer: Effects of prior appetitive conditioning upon aversive conditioning in rabbits
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“Several influential theories of avoidance hypothesize central roles for Pavlovian and instrumental learning processes in the maintenance of avoidance [11–15].”
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“This distinction resonates with seminal work on the emotional effects of frustration (Amsel, 1962), identifying safety cues as reinforcers (Miller, 1948) and on ‘cross-tolerance’, providing evidence for the similarity of punishment and non-reward (Brown & Wagner, 1964).”
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Effects of hippocampal granule-cell agenesis on acquisition of escape from fear and one-way active-avoidance responses.
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“Miller (1948) and McAllister and Mc- Allister (1962a) have shown that normal rats will learn to perform an instrumental reaction to escape a stimulus previously paired with shock.”
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Suppression and Facilitation by Response Contingent Shock
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Amygdaloid GABA, not glutamate neurotransmission or mRNA transcription controls footshock-associated fear arousal in the acoustic startle paradigm
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“Although the reinforcement mechanism in AA is unknown, one prominent theory hypothesizes that “fear reduction” associated with CS termination reinforces the AR (Mowrer and Lamoreaux, 1946; Miller, 1948; Rescorla and Solomon, 1967; Levis, 1989).”
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“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript avoidance of aversive outcomes is more complex and requires motivated inhibition or initiation of behavior, depending on the setting in which these stimuli are encountered (Miller, 1948; Mowrer & Lamoreaux 1946).”
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Amygdala Inactivation Blocks Expression of Conditioned Memory Modulation and the Promotion of Avoidance and Freezing.
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“Upon encountering the feared stimulus, individuals with phobias experience cognitive distortions about its potential threat, (Jones & Menzies, 2000; Marshall, Bristol, & Barbaree, 1992), behavioral avoidance of the stimulus (Miller, 1948), and increased physiological activity (Nesse, Curtis, Thyer, McCann, Huber-Smith…”
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Differential acquisition of conditioned suppression in rats with increased and decreased luminance levels as CS + s
Welker, R. L., & Wheatley, K. L. (1977) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/0023-9690(77)90009-1 · Cited by 20

Authors: Miller, N. E.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
Corresponding author: Miller, Neal E.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1948
Volume: 38
Issue: 1
Pages: 89-101
ISSN: 0022-1015 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1037/h0058455
OpenAlex: W2175609761
Cited by: 537
References: 10
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 7
FWCI: 27.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
Keywords: fear, fear conditioning, motivation, fear reduction, reinforcement, drive theory, avoidance learning
MeSH terms: Drive, Fear, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Psychoanalytic Theory, Reinforcement, Psychology

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Studies of fear as an acquirable drive: I. Fear as motivation and fear-reduction as reinforcement in the learning of new responses.

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