The DOI matches its Crossref record; 10 of the 10 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Studies of fear as an acquirable drive: I. Fear as motivation and fear-reduction as reinforcement in the learning of new responses.
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“The research literature suggests that animals show response rate decreases when presented with competing approach and avoidance contingencies involving food and electric shock, respectively.”
From A derived relations analysis of approach-avoidance conflict: Implications for the behavioral analysis of human anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as Miller (1948)
In the citing paper
“For instance, in one study, Miller (1948) trained rats to run an alley in order to gain access to food in a box. The rats were then shocked while eating the food. On subsequent trials, the rats typically ran the alley to a specific point before halting just short of it. According to Miller, the approach and avoidance contingencies were equal at this point in time and space.”
From A derived relations analysis of approach-avoidance conflict: Implications for the behavioral analysis of human anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as Miller (1948)
In the citing paper
“Indeed, the relatively clear, consistent but varying responses observed across participants in the current experiments contrast with the effects observed using functionally analogous preparations with infrahumans.”
From A derived relations analysis of approach-avoidance conflict: Implications for the behavioral analysis of human anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as Miller (1948)
In the citing paper
“Miller found that this point of equilibrium could be altered by varying the intensity of food deprivation or shock.”
From A derived relations analysis of approach-avoidance conflict: Implications for the behavioral analysis of human anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as Miller (1948)
Citations
Cites
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Self-citationFear as an intervening variable in avoidance conditioning.
Mowrer, O. H., & Lamoreaux, R. R. (1946) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/h0060150 · Cited by 217
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An opponent-process theory of motivation. I. Temporal dynamics of affect
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“This conception seems to have originated, at least for aversively motivated behavior, with Miller (1948), who postulated that emotional reactions become associated with previously neutral stimuli by the action of drive reduction .”
BackgroundClassical fear-conditioning in the anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis
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“Later theorists expanded on this formulation and shifted toward a model in which classically conditioned fear acts as a drive that motivates and reinforces avoidance (Eysenck, 1976, 1979; Eysenck & Rachman, 1965; Miller, 1948; Mowrer, 1947, 1960).”
BackgroundLeDoux, J. E. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1400335111 · Cited by 891
“freezing) (7–10, 19), peripheral physiological responses of the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems (10–12, 75, 78) that produce signals that feedback to the brain (32, 37, 159), and changes in brain activity, including synaptic transmission within and between circuits, and increases in general arousal due to wide…”
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“The basic behavioral principles behind hypothesis testing of irrational beliefs are consistent with the dual processing theory of avoidance (Miller, 1992; Mowrer, 1939; Rescorla & Solomon, 1967).”
ResultConditioned fear as revealed by magnitude of startle response to an auditory stimulus.
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“Miller (1948) further showed that rats can be taught a new response to escape from the CS.”
BackgroundDrug reinforcement studied by the use of place conditioning in rat
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An Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation
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The conditioning model of neurosis
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Avoidance learning: a review of theoretical models and recent developments
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“Concurrently, by suggesting that the initial fear learning was based on Pavlovian processes, rather than drive reduction, the theory was better applicable to experimental data than the competing theory of Neal Miller (Miller, 1948), according to which all reinforcement during escape/avoidance learning originated from…”
MethodThe birth, death and resurrection of avoidance: a reconceptualization of a troubled paradigm
LeDoux, J. E., Moscarello, J., Sears, R., & Campese, V (2017) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2016.166 · Cited by 348
A categorized list of motivation definitions, with a suggestion for a consensual definition
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Traumatic avoidance learning: Acquisition in normal dogs.
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Conditioning through vicarious instigation.
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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AS SHOCK‐FREQUENCY REDUCTION 1
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“Mineka et al. provided rigorous experimental evidence of vicarious fear acquisition in rhesus monkeys (e.g., Cook and Mineka, 1990, 1989; Mineka et al., 1984; Mineka and Cook, 1993, 1988).”
Systematic desensitization as a counterconditioning process.
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Classical conditioning of human ‘evaluative’ responses
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Theory and experiment relating psychoanalytic displacement to stimulus-response generalization.
Miller, N. E. (1948) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0056728 · Cited by 295
Self-citationLawrence, D. H. (1949) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0058097 · Cited by 285
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“…auditory stimulus acquires aversive properties through fear conditioning, it can then motivate the learning of active responses that allow escape or avoidance from threatening situations by serving as a conditioned reinforcer (Mowrer and Lamoreaux 1946; Miller 1948; McAllister and McAllister 1971).”
BackgroundA model for the role of motivational factors in drivers' decision-making∗
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Tests of unconditioned anxiety — Pitfalls and disappointments
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From metapsychology to molecular biology: explorations into the nature of anxiety
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Math Anxiety and Math Ability in Early Primary School Years
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Learning models of PTSD: Theoretical accounts and psychobiological evidence
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“…conditioned fear is proposed to act as a drive that motivates and reinforces avoidance of the CS, thereby denying an individual the opportunity to extinguish via exposure to the CS in the absence of the US (Eysenck, 1976, 1979; Eysenck and Rachman, 1965; Miller, 1948; Mowrer, 1947, 1960).”
BackgroundAnxiety management training: A nonspecific behavior therapy program for anxiety control
Suinn, R. M., & Richardson, F. C. (1971) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(71)80096-5 · Cited by 239
Neural structures mediating expression and extinction of platform-mediated avoidance
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“This is consistent with earlier (Mowrer and Lamoreaux, 1946; Miller, 1948; Mowrer, 1960) as well as more recent (Choi et al., 2010; Lázaro-Muñoz et al., 2010; Martinez et al., 2013; Moscarello and LeDoux, 2013) studies showing that acquisition of avoidance reduces freezing, reflecting the…”
ResultEmotions conceptualized as intervening variables—with suggestions toward a theory of frustration.
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Principles of psychology: A systematic text in the science of behavior.
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ON GOING BACK TO NATURE: A REVIEW OF SELIGMAN AND HAGER'S BIOLOGICAL BOUNDARIES OF LEARNING1
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Active Avoidance Requires a Serial Basal Amygdala to Nucleus Accumbens Shell Circuit
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“The first phase is Pavlovian, in which the subject learns that the CS predicts the US, and the second phase is instrumental, in which the subject learns that a particular behavior causes CS termination (Mowrer and Lamoreaux, 1946; Miller, 1948; Cain and LeDoux, 2007).”
BackgroundSpecies-Specific Defense Reactions
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Counseling theory and practice.
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The role of amygdala nuclei in the expression of auditory signaled two-way active avoidance in rats.
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“mechanisms of such conditioned inhibition learning, but it remains possible that the CE participates in this process as well. It should also be noted that although the CE was targeted for selective lesions in the Smith et al. (2001) study (and sustained the bulk of the damage), the authors did a thorough job of quanti…”
BackgroundPutting the “mental” back in “mental disorders”: a perspective from research on fear and anxiety
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STIMULI INEVITABLY GENERATED BY BEHAVIOR THAT AVOIDS ELECTRIC SHOCK ARE INHERENTLY REINFORCING
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Processes of fear reduction in systematic desensitization: animal studies.
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An Evaluation of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy as a Treatment for Dissociative Seizures
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Conditioned frustration as a learned drive.
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The defense motivation system: A theory of avoidance behavior
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“The conflict between defensive and exploratory behavior has been overlooked as a factor in the "escape from fear" paradigm of Miller (1948), Brown and Jacobs (1949), and McAllister and McAllister (1962), in which animals are given the opportunity to escape from a box in which they have been…”
The effects of termination of the CS and avoidance of the US on avoidance learning.
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Learning, Memory and Personality
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Affect and Aggression: An Animal Model Applied to Human Behavior
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Human motives and the concept of the self.
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Psychotherapy as a problem in learning theory.
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“During much of the last century, fear conditioning was used as a way to examine learned motivation in rats (e.g., Miller 1948).”
BackgroundFailure to find a learned drive based on hunger; evidence for learning motivated by "exploration."
Myers, A. K., & Miller, N. E. (1954) · Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0062664 · Cited by 120
Self-citationThe role of fear in the motivation and acquisition of responses.
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Some Effects of Noncontingent Aversive Stimulation
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The drive theory of social facilitation.
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Strength of fear as a function of the number of acquisition and extinction trials.
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Psychological responses to cancer recurrence
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BackgroundSemantics, Surplus Meaning, and the Science of Fear
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“Fear, in this approach became hypothetical physiological [86_TD$DIFF]motivational state that connected threats with behavior [2].”
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Maze learning in the absence of primary reinforcement: a study of secondary reinforcement.
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Is there any need for conditioning in Eysenck's conditioning model of neurosis?
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The sensory nature of reward in instrumental behavior
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Amygdala involvement in human avoidance, escape and approach behavior
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“…amygdala may function as one important neural mechanism within the framework of two-factor theories of avoidance which propose threatening fearconditioned cues motivate avoidance and removal of threatening cues and fear-reduction negatively reinforce avoidance (Cain and LeDoux, 2008; Miller, 1948).”
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Defensive responses: behaviour, the brain and the body
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“In a landmark paper 2 in 1970, in stark contrast to the prevailing theories at the time 3,4 , Bolles argued that predatory threats induced specific innate defence responses rather than arbitrary actions whose usefulness to the animal in threat avoidance required reinforcement learning (provided…”
BackgroundThe modification of autonomic responses during aggressive interchange1
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Complex human behavior: A systematic extension of learning principles.
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An Automated Apparatus for the Avoidance Training of Rats
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Pavlovian Conditioning and the Mediation of behavior
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Stimulus generalization as a function of level of experimentally induced anxiety.
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Metadata
- Authors
- Miller, N. E.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Miller, Neal E.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology
- Published
- 1948
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 89-101
- ISSN
- 0022-1015 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2175609761
- Cited by
- 537
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Keywords
- fear, fear conditioning, motivation, fear reduction, reinforcement, drive theory, avoidance learning
- MeSH terms
- Drive, Fear, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Psychoanalytic Theory, Reinforcement, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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