Neuroanatomical correlates of behavioral rating versus performance measures of working memory in typically developing children and adolescents.

May combine two claims.

There were no meaningful associations between BRIEF WM and frontal grey matter (p = 0.6314), nor with other lobar volumes.

“There were no meaningful associations between BRIEF WM and frontal grey matter (p = 0.6314), nor were there associations with other lobar volumes.”

May combine two claims.

SWM Total Errors and DS Backward were associated with right hippocampal volume (beta = -0.16, SE = 0.05, p = 0.0018 and beta = 0.17, SE = 0.06, p = 0.0034, respectively).

“However, there were negative correlations between SWM Total Errors and DS Backward with right hippocampal volume (β = -0.16, S.E. = 0.05, p = 0.0018 and β = 0.17, S.E. = 0.06, p = 0.0034, respectively).”

May combine two claims.

The BRIEF WM scale was significantly correlated with CANTAB SWM Total Errors but not with DS Backward.

“The BRIEF WM scale was significantly correlated with CANTAB SWM Total Errors but not the DS Backward.”

May combine two claims.

The correlation coefficients for left and right hippocampus, amygdala, and globus pallidus were .89, .80, and .70, respectively.

“This was the case for three structures: hippocampus, r(345) = .89, p < .001; amygdala r(345) = .80, p < .001; and globus pallidus, r(345) =.70, p < .001.”

May combine two claims.

The present study evaluated potential age interactions and detected none.

“We did evaluate potential interactions with age in the present study; however, none were detected.”

May combine two claims.

In this sample, performance measures and behavioral rating measures that purport to assess working memory show a lack of correspondence with each other and with neuroanatomical measures.

“The first is the lack of correspondence between measures purported to assess the same function, in this case working memory”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · plain

  “the discrepancy between performance and observational measures of “working memory,” in terms of their association with one another as well as with the neuroanatomical measures”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted

  “the typically observed dissociation between performance and behavioral rating measures that purport to assess the same function, in particular, working memory”

May combine two claims.

For the temporal grey matter associations with BRIEF INH and EC, total brain volume was collinear, so results came from a model excluding total brain volume; the reduced-model coefficients were more conservative.

“The temporal grey matter and total brain matter volumes were found to be collinear in these models, and therefore the above results were obtained from a model excluding the total brain volume measure.”

May combine two claims.

In Mahone et al. (2009), the correlation between the BRIEF Working Memory Scale and the WJ-III Auditory Working Memory test was small and not statistically significant.

“Despite the association of both outcomes with the volume of frontal grey matter, the correlation between the two working memory measures was small and not statistically significant.”

• cites Mahone et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Handedness and scanner were considered as covariates but were found non-contributory and dropped from the models.

“Handedness and scanner were each considered as covariates but were found to be non-contributory and dropped from the models.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Mixed-effects linear regression models were adjusted for age, gender, and a measure of total brain volume.

“These models were adjusted for the effects of age, gender, and a measure of total brain volume.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Volumetric analyses used 347 participants and 663 scans, while cortical thickness analyses used 350 participants and 615 observations.

“As a result, volumetric analyses were conducted on data derived from 347 participants, with 663 scans in total, whereas the cortical thickness analysis sample included 350 participants, with a total of 615 observations.”

May combine two claims.

Cortical grey matter accounts for 40% of total brain volume and is very highly correlated with mean cortical thickness (>0.75).

“As previously demonstrated by our group, cortical grey matter accounts for 40% of total brain volume, and is very highly correlated with mean cortical thickness (>0.75; Karama et al., 2011).”

• cites Karama et al., 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The failure to replicate Mahone et al. (2009) may reflect the instability of their relatively small sample size and their lack of correction for multiple comparisons.

“Our failure to replicate the findings of Mahone et al. (2009) may reflect the instability of their relatively small sample size and the fact that they did not correct for multiple comparisons.”

• cites Mahone et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Morphometric neuroimaging can be used to identify neural correlates of questionnaire-based ratings of executive function.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Collinearity diagnostics including variance inflation factor and condition index were used, and models with high collinearity were rerun excluding total brain volume.

“Collinearity diagnostics, including the variance inflation factor (VIF) and condition index (CI), were used to assess the degree of collinearity among variables in each model.”

May combine two claims.

Contrary to expectation, working memory measures were not associated with frontal volumes or cortical thickness, for either performance measures or the BRIEF WM scale, despite the large dataset's power.

“Contrary to expectation, we did not confirm associations between working memory and frontal measurements, either volumes or cortical thickness, for either the performance measures or the BRIEF WM scale, despite the power of this very large data set to detect associations.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Morphometric neuroimaging can be used to identify neural correlates of questionnaire-based ratings of executive function.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A whole-brain correction using random field theory with p < .05 was used to account for multiple comparisons.

“A whole-brain correction, using random field theory (RFT) with p < .05, was used to account for multiple comparisons (Worsley, Taylor, Tomaiuolo, & Lerch , 2004).”

• cites Worsley, Taylor, Tomaiuolo, & Lerch, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The volumetric and cortical thickness samples did not differ significantly in age, gender, handedness, or neuropsychological scores.

“There were no significant differences between the two highly-overlapping samples in terms of age, gender, handedness or neuropsychological scores.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The failure to replicate Pangelinan et al. (2011) may reflect differences in statistical methods, including lack of multiple comparison correction, no control for total brain volume, and a two-tier analysis that may have inflated degrees of freedom.

“Again, this discrepancy may reflect differences in statistical methods, as they neither corrected for multiple comparisons nor controlled for total brain volume, and their twotier analysis (first generating residuals from linear mixed effects modeling, then analyzing these residuals with Pearson’s correlations) may have artificially inflated degrees of freedom.”

• cites Pangelinan et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Morphometric neuroimaging can be used to identify neural correlates of questionnaire-based ratings of executive function.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Inter-site reliability of the MRI scanners was evaluated using American College of Radiology phantoms and living phantoms scanned at each site.

“Inter-site reliability was evaluated with American College of Radiology phantoms, as well as with living phantoms scanned at each site.”

• cites Evans & BDCG, 2006Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

McAuley et al. (2010) found that the BRIEF correlated more strongly with other questionnaire measures of behavior disruption than with laboratory measures of executive functioning.

“In their own study, McAuley et al. (2010) report higher correlations of the BRIEF with other (questionnaire) measures of behavior disruption than with laboratory measures of executive functioning.”

• cites McAuley et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A Bonferroni correction was applied, yielding an adjusted significance threshold of alpha = .0047.

“A Bonferroni correction was applied, accounting for the non-independence of the measures of interest, leading to an adjusted significance threshold of α = .0047”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The NIH MRI Study of Normal Brain Development sample consisted of 433 healthy children aged 4 to 21 years and was demographically representative of the US population.

“The overall study sample consisted of 433 healthy children aged 4 to 21 years, and was demographically representative of the US population in terms of variables including gender, race, and socioeconomic status (Waber et al., 2007).”

• cites Waber et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

The negative correlation of BRIEF EC with temporal lobe volume is consistent with neuroimaging studies linking these structures to emotional appraisal and emotional dysregulation in adults with bipolar disorder, social anxiety disorder, and schizophrenia.

“This latter finding is consistent with several neuroimaging studies implicating these structures in emotional appraisal, with alterations in volume and function being linked to emotional dysregulation in adults with Bipolar Disorder (Almeida, Akkal, et al., 2009; Almeida, Mechelli, et al., 2009), Social Anxiety Disorder (Liao et al., 2011) and Schizophrenia (Surguladze et al., 2006).”

• cites Almeida, Akkal, et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Almeida, Mechelli, et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Liao et al., 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The magnitude of the effects was insufficient to prove the laterality distinction statistically, so it must be viewed as speculative.

“Unfortunately, the magnitude of the effects was insufficient to prove such a distinction statistically and it must therefore be viewed as speculative.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

If the BRIEF WM scale reflects episodic or autobiographical memory, it would measure an important capacity that standard laboratory performance measures miss because they are context independent.

“If so, it would measure an important capacity to which standard laboratory performance measures are not sensitive because they are context independent.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Standard laboratory performance measures of working memory are context independent.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The findings situate the BRIEF within the purview of contemporary cognitive neuroscientific models.

“Moreover, they situate the BRIEF in particular within the purview of contemporary cognitive neuroscientific models.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Children with ADHD show greater temporal lobe activity during response inhibition tasks than unaffected controls.

“Enhanced temporal lobe activity during response inhibition tasks has been observed in children with ADHD when contrasted with an unaffected control group (Schulz et al., 2004).”

• cites Schulz et al., 2004Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Cases lacking hippocampus and amygdala data were excluded from all volumetric analyses to preserve comparability, while cases without cortical thickness data were retained for volumetric analysis and vice versa to maximize sample size.

“In order to preserve comparability of the volumetric results, cases (i.e., a given individual on a given test day) lacking hippocampus and amygdala data were excluded from all volumetric analyses. In order to maximize sample size, however, cases without cortical thickness data were retained for the volumetric analysis, and vice versa.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Associations between working memory performance and right hippocampal volume have been previously demonstrated in fMRI paradigms.

“Such associations have been previously demonstrated in fMRI paradigms of working memory (Abrahams et al., 1999; Ranganath & Blumenfeld, 2005).”

• cites Abrahams et al., 1999Not checked yet

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• cites Ranganath & Blumenfeld, 2005Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Studies have linked temporal lobe structure to schizophrenia prodrome in children and to major depressive disorder in adolescents.

“temporal lobe morphology has been implicated in children with schizophrenia prodrome (Cullen et al., 2012) and in adolescents with major depressive disorder (Shad, Muddasani & Rao, 2012).”

• cites Cullen et al., 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Shad, Muddasani & Rao, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Raw scores were used for all analyses to avoid distortions that could have been introduced by the norming process.

“Raw scores were used for all analyses so as to avoid distortions that could potentially have been introduced by the norming process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Whether the BRIEF WM scale reflects episodic memory and how the observed anatomical correlates relate to function cannot be determined from these data.

“Whether this is the case and how the observed anatomical correlates may be related to function cannot be determined on the basis of these data”

May combine two claims.

The BRIEF developers factor-analyzed many parent- and teacher-endorsed behavioral descriptors of executive function, found a statistically coherent cluster, and labeled it working memory because its items matched common understanding of working memory.

“The developers of the BRIEF, in contrast, conducted a factor analysis of a large number of behavioral descriptors thought to reflect executive functioning, as endorsed by parents and teachers, and identified a cluster that cohered statistically. Since the items in this factor resonated with the general understanding of working memory, they assigned it that label.”

• cites Gioia et al., 2000Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Mixed-effects linear regression models were used to account for missing data and repeated measurements over time.

“Mixed-effects linear regression models were used to assess associations between neuroimaging measures and behavioral outcomes in order to account for missing data and repeated measurements over time.”

May combine two claims.

A previous study from our group using the same database analyzed the CBCL Attention Problems scale and found age-dependent associations with cortical thickness in multiple frontal attention-network regions, plus one area in left medial temporal cortex suggesting potential overlap.

“A previous study from our group, based on the same database, reported a parallel set of analyses using the Attention Problems scale from the Child Behavior Checklist (Ducharme et al., 2012). That study identified age-dependent associations with cortical thickness in multiple regions of frontal cortex typically associated with the attention network. One area in left medial temporal cortex was”

• cites Ducharme et al., 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

EC and INH were negatively correlated with temporal lobe volume, whereas WM was not.

“EC and INH were negatively correlated with temporal lobe volume, whereas WM was not.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The overlap between BRIEF WM scale items and inattentive ADHD symptoms has been noted by critics and by the BRIEF authors, who suggest working memory and sustained attention may be difficult to distinguish.

“The overlap between items included in the BRIEF WM scale and inattentive symptoms of ADHD has been previously noted, not only by critics (McAuley et al., 2010), but by the authors of the BRIEF themselves (Gioia et al., 2000), who suggest that working memory and the ability to sustain performance and attention may be difficult to distinguish.”

• cites McAuley et al., 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Gioia et al., 2000Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Participants under 6 and over 16 years of age were excluded so that the versions of the neuropsychological measures would be consistent across participants.

“For the purposes of this report, participants under 6 and over 16 years of age were excluded so that the versions of the neuropsychological measures would be consistent across participants.”

May combine two claims.

BRIEF WM was associated with parahippocampal gyrus cortical thickness bilaterally, more prominently on the left; EC was associated only with the right PHG; and INH was not associated with any cortical thickness measure.

“The BRIEF WM scale was associated with cortical thickness in PHG bilaterally, but more prominently on the left side. EC, in contrast, was significantly associated only with the right PHG, and INH was not associated with any cortical thickness measure.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Bilateral structures were combined because left and right components were very highly correlated; when correlations were below 0.9, hemispheres were analyzed separately in right-handed individuals only.

“For all volumetric analyses, bilateral structures were combined since left and right components were very highly correlated. When correlation coefficients for left and right sides were <0.9, hemispheres were analyzed separately (right-handed individuals only).”

May combine two claims.

Overall, the findings for the attention scale were quite different from those for the BRIEF WM scale, suggesting the two can be distinguished.

“Overall, however, the findings for this attention scale were quite different from those for the BRIEF WM, suggesting that they can be distinguished.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Medial temporal lobe structures are critical for episodic or autobiographical memory.

“Medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures have long been viewed as critical to episodic (Eichenbaum, Otto, & Cohen, 1992; Scoville & Milner, 1957), or autobiographical (Tulving, 2002), memory.”

• cites Eichenbaum, Otto, & Cohen, 1992Not checked yet

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• cites Scoville & Milner, 1957Not checked yet

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• cites Tulving, 2002Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Baddeley's original concept of working memory described a discrete cognitive operation that could be shown in well-structured experimental tasks and was relatively independent of context.

“The term “working memory,” as originally framed (Baddeley, 1986), referred to a discrete cognitive operation that could be demonstrated in well structured experimental paradigms and was relatively independent of context.”

• cites Baddeley, 1986Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is reasonable that the BRIEF would relate to the medial temporal lobe system, which is central to binding items to context.

“In particular, it would make sense that the BRIEF would bear a relationship to the medial temporal lobe system, which is central to the binding of items to context.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The BRIEF is explicitly contextual; its items refer to a child's behavioral patterns in everyday life.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Howard et al. (2011) found that PHG responded specifically to scene novelty, which fits the idea that it represents the global context of episodes or the local layout of an environment.

“In another study (Howard, Kumaran, Ólafsdóttir, & Spiers, 2011) PHG was specifically sensitive to scene novelty, consistent with the view that it supports neural representation of the global context of episodes or the local layout of an environment.”

• cites Howard, Kumaran, Ólafsdóttir, & Spiers, 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A limitation was that the sample had been screened for disorders such as ADHD, which could have constrained the strengths of associations between both performance and behavioral measures and brain measures.

“Second, because the sample had been screened for disorders (e.g., ADHD), the strengths of associations between both the performance and behavioral measures and the brain measures could have been constrained.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These results concern anatomy only, while the cited studies examined function.

“It is important to note, however, that the present findings pertain only to anatomy, whereas the above referenced studies assessed function.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A prior study found that everyday memory, measured by self-report, was related to medial temporal lobe thickness in healthy older adults.

“memory in daily life, as assessed by a self-report questionnaire, has previously been linked to medial temporal lobe thickness in a healthy elderly population (Bjørnebekk, Westlye, Walhovd, & Fjell, 2010).”

• cites Bjørnebekk, Westlye, Walhovd, & Fjell, 2010Not checked yet

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