The functional emergence of prefrontally-guided working memory systems in four- to eight-year-old children
Abstract
The neural processes that underlie the functional emergence of human cognitive functions, particularly those associated with the prefrontal cortex (PFC), are of growing interest to developmental psychologists and neuroscientists. Specifically, working memory functions have been correlated with PFC activity in nonhuman primates and adult humans but have not been extensively studied in children. We examined the developmental emergence of functions involved in working memory through the use of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB), a computerized battery of nonverbal visually-presented neuropsychological tests designed to dissociate frontal from temporal lobe behavioral functions. Participants were normal children, aged 4-8 (n = 181) and a small group of young adults (n = 24) who completed measures of Spatial Memory Span, Spatial Working Memory, the Tower of London planning task, Visual Pattern and Spatial Recognition tasks, and a Set-Shifting task. Findings indicate a general age-related progression in ability levels on frontal lobe tasks, with 4-year-olds performing worse than 5- to 7-year-olds on all measures. Eight-year-olds are superior to younger children in their ability to solve complex problems but have not yet reached adult levels of performance on the most difficult items of the Tower of London and Spatial Working Memory tasks. We conclude that the development of working memory functions proceeds dimensionally, starting with refinement of basic perceptual and sensorimotor functions and culminating with the physiological maturation of widespread neural networks that integrate complex processing demands inherent to working memory tasks.
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After kindergarten, there are even more improvements in cognitive flexibility, which last until early adolescence, the time when children reach adult levels.
“After kindergarten, there are even more improvements (Luciana and Nelson, 1998), which last until early adolescence, the time when they reach adult levels.”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Luciana and Nelson, 1998
The Tower of London is generally considered too difficult for preschoolers; less than half of a 4-year-old sample understood task requirements despite extensive training.
“This task is generally considered too difficult for preschoolers, as demonstrated by Luciana and Nelson (1998) who found that less than half of their 4-year-old sample understood task requirements despite extensive training.”
From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Luciana & Nelson, 1998
The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) has a computerized version of self-ordered searching called Spatial Working Memory.
“The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) has a computerized version of self-ordered searching referred to as Spatial Working Memory.”
From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Luciana & Nelson, 1998
Luciana and Nelson (1998) reported that 4-year-olds make more perseverative errors than older preschoolers on a computerized self-ordered search task, which likely reflects less mature working memory.
“With an older sample and a computerized self-ordered search task, Luciana and Nelson (1998) reported that 4-year-olds make more perseverative errors than older preschoolers, which likely reflects less mature working memory.”
From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Luciana & Nelson, 1998
Performance improves with age across the preschool period on measures of self-ordered pointing tasks.
“Performance improves with age across the preschool period on measures of self-ordered pointing tasks (Hongwanishkul, Happaney, Lee, & Zelazo, 2005;Luciana & Nelson, 1998).”
From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Luciana & Nelson, 1998
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- Authors
- Luciana, M., & Nelson, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Luciana, Monica
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1998-03
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 273-293
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2049187838
- Cited by
- 620
- References
- 8
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 5.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- working memory, prefrontal cortex, cognitive development, children, frontal lobe function, spatial working memory, Tower of London, set-shifting, problem solving, age differences, neuronal maturation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Humans, Memory, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychomotor Performance, Space Perception, Prefrontal Cortex
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