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Tracing the stepwise oxygenation of the Proterozoic ocean
Open accessAbstract
Biogeochemical signatures preserved in ancient sedimentary rocks provide clues to the nature and timing of the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere. Geochemical data suggest that oxygenation proceeded in two broad steps near the beginning and end of the Proterozoic eon (2,500 to 542 million years ago). The oxidation state of the Proterozoic ocean between these two steps and the timing of deep-ocean oxygenation have important implications for the evolutionary course of life on Earth but remain poorly known. Here we present a new perspective on ocean oxygenation based on the authigenic accumulation of the redox-sensitive transition element molybdenum in sulphidic black shales. Accumulation of authigenic molybdenum from sea water is already seen in shales by 2,650 Myr ago; however, the small magnitudes of these enrichments reflect weak or transient sources of dissolved molybdenum before about 2,200 Myr ago, consistent with minimal oxidative weathering of the continents. Enrichments indicative of persistent and vigorous oxidative weathering appear in shales deposited at roughly 2,150 Myr ago, more than 200 million years after the initial rise in atmospheric oxygen. Subsequent expansion of sulphidic conditions after about 1,800 Myr ago (refs 8, 9) maintained a mid-Proterozoic molybdenum reservoir below 20 per cent of the modern inventory, which in turn may have acted as a nutrient feedback limiting the spatiotemporal distribution of euxinic (sulphidic) bottom waters and perhaps the evolutionary and ecological expansion of eukaryotic organisms. By 551 Myr ago, molybdenum contents reflect a greatly expanded oceanic reservoir due to oxygenation of the deep ocean and corresponding decrease in sulphidic conditions in the sediments and water column.
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“Furthermore, Archean marine sediments have low concentrations of elements that enter rivers during oxidative continental weathering (68–70).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [68]
In the citing paper
“Low concentrations of redox sensitive elements (e.g., Mo and V) and their low ratios with TOC of marine black shales have been observed throughout Earth history before the Ediacaran, and interpreted as the result of low oxygen concentration in ocean and atmosphere33,34.”
From Subtle Cr isotope signals track the variably anoxic Cryogenian interglacial period with voluminous manganese accumulation and decrease in biodiversity (2019) · cites this paper as [33]
In the citing paper
“The uranium isotope record indicates that the modeled oxygenation state of the early Cambrian oceans was neither steady nor monotonous (7–9, 47, 48), but rather oscillated dramatically in concert with changes to the global marine carbon cycle as indicated by the δ13C curve.”
From Atmosphere-ocean oxygen and productivity dynamics during early animal radiations (2019) · cites this paper as [47]
In the citing paper
“Based on the collective data for the boring billion (Arnold et al., 2004; Scott et al., 2008; Planavsky et al., 2011; Poulton and Canfield, 2011; Partin et al., 2013; Reinhard et al., 2013; as reviewed in Lyons et al., 2014), Fe-rich (ferruginous) waters must have dominated the deeper ocean.”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Muted metal enrichments in euxinic shales support the possibility of low marine molybdenum (Mo) inventories during the boring billion due to high rates of sediment uptake within the anoxic and euxinic oceans (Scott et al., 2008)”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“The contrasting behaviors of molybdenum, chromium, uranium, and rhenium in organic-rich marginal sedimentary rocks deposited throughout the mid-Proterozoic qualitatively indicate widespread marine anoxia (Partin et al. 2013, Reinhard et al. 2013, Scott et al. 2008, Sheen et al. 2018)”
From The History of Ocean Oxygenation (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al. 2008
In the citing paper
“All available data that constrain the marine landscape in the midProterozoic ocean are consistent with only locally developed euxinic conditions along productive continental margins (e.g., in oxygen-minimum zones) or within intracratonic basins”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“The emerging picture from black shales indicates that Precambrian seawater reservoirs of redox-sensitive elements were nowhere close to those of the Phanerozoic (e.g., Scott et al., 2008; Partin et al., 2013b; Reinhard et al., 2013).”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Following increasing oxygenation in late Neoproterozoic (Canfield et al., 2007;Scott et al., 2008;Sahoo et al., 2012;Lyons et al., 2014a, Planavsky et al., 2014a;Sahoo et al., 2016), these sulfide complexes would have become less abundant, resulting in greater availability of Cd, Cu, and Zn.”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“the marine metal reservoir exerts a first order control on enrichments in euxinic and anoxic sediments (Algeo and Lyons, 2006;Lyons et al., 2009;Scott et al., 2008;Reinhard et al., 2013b).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
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“7) limiting the spatial and temporal extent of euxinic conditions because the bacterially mediated reduction of sulphate to sulphide would be depressed by the decrease of organic matter (Scott et al. 2008).”
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“…in the Mo signature of marine sediments is linked to the start of the accumulation of free O2 in Earth’s atmosphere and the subsequent oxidation, dissolution, and isotope fractionation of different molybdenum species in the ocean [e.g., Anbar et al., 2007; Wille et al., 2007; Scott et al., 2008].”
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“…the stepwise oxygenation of the ocean and atmosphere since the Archean, which was associated with major changes to ocean trace-element budgets due to the variable solubility of different elements under different redox conditions (e.g., Anbar & Knoll, 2002; Saito et al., 2003; Scott et al., 2008).”
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“Scott et al. (2008) and Reinhard et al. (2013) suggest that the modern U, Mo, and nutrient cycles were well established since the Latest Neoproterozoic (ca. 550 Myr), shortly after the initial oxidation of the deep ocean and subsequent radiation of structurally complex life forms (Canfield et al.,…”
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Self-citationDating Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria with Abundant Eukaryotic Fossils
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“Marine molybdenum levels increased across the GOE and again in the Neoproterozoic (ca. 0.6 Ga; Scott et al. 2008), which may be related to the late origin of CAOB and the colonization of CAOB in diverse ecosystems (Sun et al. 2021; Palomo et al. 2022).”
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“Ocean redox chemistry can also be evaluated by Mo isotopes (Scott et al., 2008), and”
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“A number of recent studies (Scott et al., 2008, 2014; Planavsky et al., 2012; Partin et al., 2013; Lyons et al., 2014) detailed the early Palaeoproterozoic, ca. 1.85–2.4 Ga, as distinct from the rest of the Proterozoic, characterised by a dramatic rise and fall of O2 levels in the ocean atmosphere…”
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“The biotic evolution is hypothesized to be the consequence of massive oxygenation of the atmosphere and ocean (e.g., Can B eld and Teske 1996; Can B eld et al. 2007; Scott et al. 2008; Shields-Zhou and Och 2011; Chen et al. 2015a).”
Marine sulphate captures a Paleozoic transition to a modern terrestrial weathering environment
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Chromium isotope evidence for oxygenation events in the Ediacaran ocean
Xu, D., Wang, X., Zhu, J., Jiang, G., Shi, X., Wang, X., & Sahoo, S. (2022) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2022.02.019 · Cited by 15
16 Good Golly, Why Moly? THE STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF MOLYBDENUM
Kendall, B., Dahl, T. W., & Anbar, A. D. (2017) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110545630-017 · Cited by 16
Self-citationCannell, A., Blamey, N., Brand, U., Escapa, I., & Large, R. (2022) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104062 · Cited by 14
Xiao, H., Li, M., Wang, T., You, B., Lu, X., & Wang, X. (2022) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106848 · Cited by 15
Nutrient and iron cycling in a modern analogue for the redoxcline of a Proterozoic ocean shelf
Rico, K. I., & Sheldon, N. D. (2019) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.02.032 · Cited by 15
Singh, A. K., Chakraborty, P. P., & Sarkar, S. (2018) · Current Science · doi:10.18520/cs/v115/i7/1334-1341 · Cited by 14
“However, according to Scott et al.3, the concentration of dissolved Mo in Proterozoic ocean remained less than CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 115, NO. 7, 10 OCTOBER 2018 1337 Table 1.”
BackgroundPetsch, S. T. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.00811-1 · Cited by 16
Peng, Y., Dong, L., Ma, H., Wang, R., Lang, X., Peng, Y., Qin, S., Liu, W., & Shen, B. (2020) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105846 · Cited by 14
Lin, D., Xi, Z., Tang, S., Lash, G. G., Chen, Y., Zhang, Q. W. L., Yang, X., & Jia, T. (2025) · Geological Society of America Bulletin · doi:10.1130/b37737.1 · Cited by 14
Zhang, L., Chang, S., Khan, M. Z., Feng, Q., Luo, C., Steiner, M., Forel, M., Liu, K., & Clausen, S. (2020) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109696 · Cited by 14
Moore, E. K., Golden, J. J., Morrison, S. M., Hao, J., & Spielman, S. J. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-08650-x · Cited by 15
Jia, T., Wang, R., Huang, T., Lang, X., Ma, H., & Shen, B. (2022) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106681 · Cited by 14
Marine redox variation and hydrographic restriction in the early Cambrian Nanhua Basin, South China
Chen, Z., Wang, G., & Jin, C. (2022) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111263 · Cited by 14
Rutledge, R., Gilleaudeau, G. J., Remírez, M., Kaufman, A. J., Lyons, T. W., Bates, S. M., & Algeo, T. J. (2024) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2024.01.007 · Cited by 14
Self-citationEarth’s oldest terrestrial red beds as direct evidence for the Great Oxidation Event ca. 2.3 Ga
Shawwa, N. A., McLoughlin-Coleman, T. R., Babechuk, M. G., Far, M. S., Mungall, J. E., & Rainbird, R. H. (2024) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2024.107423 · Cited by 14
Dynamics of nutrient cycles in the Permian–Triassic oceans
Sun, Y. (2024) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2024.104914 · Cited by 14
Li, J., Gao, P., Xiao, X., Lash, G. G., Li, S., & Liu, W. (2024) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2024.112569 · Cited by 14
O'Sullivan, E., Goodhue, R., Ames, D. E., & Kamber, B. S. (2016) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2016.04.007 · Cited by 15
Euxinia in the Neoarchean: The starting point for early oxygenation in a Brazilian Craton
Bosco‐Santos, A., Gilhooly, W., Fouskas, F., Fabricio-Silva, W., & OLIVEIRA, E. P. D. (2020) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105655 · Cited by 14
Liu, Y., & Peltier, W. R. (2011) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2010jd015128 · Cited by 14
“Despite the fact that the atmosphere was oxygenated, the Neoproterozoic ocean (at least the deep ocean) remained anoxic until after the Marinoan glaciation [Canfield et al., 2007, 2008; Fike et al., 2006; Holland, 2006; McFadden et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2008].”
BackgroundLiu, X., Yan, J., Wang, A., Li, Q., & Xie, J. (2017) · International Geology Review · doi:10.1080/00206814.2017.1363005 · Cited by 14
“materials could reach several hundred times than the average crust (Kump 2008; Scott et al. 2008).”
BackgroundThe Neoproterozoic “Blood Falls” in Tarim Craton and Their Possible Connection With Snowball Earth
Gao, B., Wu, C., Yang, T., Santosh, M., Dong, L., Zhao, T., Ye, H., Lei, R., & Li, W. (2019) · Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface · doi:10.1029/2018jf004862 · Cited by 14
Gibson, T. M., Kunzmann, M., Poirier, A., Schumann, D., Tosca, N. J., & Halverson, G. P. (2020) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2020.04.013 · Cited by 14
“…of redox-sensitive trace metals also display elevated sedimentary enrichments in the Neoproterozoic Era relative to earlier in the Precambrian, which further supports an expansion of oxygenated marine environments at this time (Scott et al., 2008; Partin et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2016).”
BackgroundJin, C., Li, C., Algeo, T. J., Wang, G., Shi, W., Cheng, M., Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Li, N., & Wang, W. (2021) · Journal of the Geological Society · doi:10.1144/jgs2020-234 · Cited by 14
“The RSTE enrichments of organic-rich anoxic black shales have often been used to track changes in oceanic redox conditions through time (e.g. Algeo et al. 2007; Scott et al. 2008; Sahoo et al. 2012, 2016; Partin et al. 2013; Reinhard et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialLi, D., Huang, Y., Li, W., Duan, C., & Luo, M. (2022) · Lithosphere · doi:10.2113/2022/2241381 · Cited by 13
“There is a normal value of Mo/TOC (<100) and Ni/TOC (<50) in normal euxinic sediments including the black shales, and in most situation, the value is far below the boundary [16, 38].”
BackgroundYang, L. W., Yang, T., Li, J., Lin, Y., & Ling, H. (2023) · Ore Geology Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105502 · Cited by 16
Evolution of iron and oxygen biogeochemical cycles during the Precambrian
Watanabe, Y., Tajika, E., & Ozaki, K. (2023) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12571 · Cited by 14
“This result supports the hypothesis of P-depleted oceans during the Protero-zoic (Bjerrum & Canfield, 2002; Jones et al., 2015; Ozaki, Reinhard, & Tajika, 2019; Reinhard et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialXu, L., Frank, A. B., Frei, R., Wang, G., Yuan, P., Fu, X., & Lehmann, B. (2024) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2024.122418 · Cited by 13
Enhanced organic carbon burial in large Proterozoic lakes: Implications for atmospheric oxygenation
Spinks, S., Parnell, J., Bowden, S. A., Taylor, R., & Maclean, M. E. (2014) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2014.09.026 · Cited by 13
Loydell, D. K., & Large, R. R. (2018) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.10.028 · Cited by 13
Iron Formations as Palaeoenvironmental Archives
Mänd, K., Robbins, L. J., Planavsky, N. J., Bekker, A., & Konhauser, K. O. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108993791 · Cited by 14
Self-citationSrivastava, S., Dong, H., Baars, O., & Sheng, Y. (2023) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12552 · Cited by 15
“Consistent with this scenario, Mo- based nitrogenase was once believed to have evolved after the GOE around 2.3– 2.4 Gyr ago (Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialMetal stable isotopes in the marine realm
Little, S., de Souza, G. F., & Xie, R. C. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99762-1.00019-x · Cited by 16
The Rise of Oxygen and Complex Life
van der Giezen, M., & Lenton, T. M. (2012) · Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology · doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2011.00605.x · Cited by 13
Metabolic versatility in a modern lineage of cyanobacteria from terrestrial hot springs
Momper, L., Hu, E., Moore, K. R., Skoog, E. J., Tyler, M., Evans, A. J., & Bosak, T. (2019) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.05.036 · Cited by 13
Ding, T., Tan, T., Wang, J., Zhang, C., Ye, X., Liang, J. S., Hao, X.-S., & Wu, B. (2021) · Gondwana Research · doi:10.1016/j.gr.2021.05.024 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Scott, C., Lyons, T. W., Bekker, A., Shen, Y., Poulton, S. W., Chu, X., & Anbar, A. D.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
- Université du Québec à Montréal (CA)
- Newcastle University (GB)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Scott, C.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2008-03
- Volume
- 452
- Issue
- 7186
- Pages
- 456-459
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2041762395
- Cited by
- 1,098
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 56
- FWCI
- 37.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Danmarks Grundforskningsfond
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- Natural Environment Research Council (NE/C518465/2)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- molybdenum, black shales, oxidative weathering, total organic carbon, ocean redox state, atmospheric oxygenation, Neoproterozoic, Precambrian, sulfur cycling, early animal evolution, Precambrian stratigraphy
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Molybdenum, Oceans and Seas, Oxygen, Seawater, Sulfides, Time Factors, Geologic Sediments, History, Ancient
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