Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen
Abstract
Several lines of geological and geochemical evidence indicate that the level of atmospheric oxygen was extremely low before 2.45 billion years (Gyr) ago, and that it had reached considerable levels by 2.22 Gyr ago. Here we present evidence that the rise of atmospheric oxygen had occurred by 2.32 Gyr ago. We found that syngenetic pyrite is present in organic-rich shales of the 2.32-Gyr-old Rooihoogte and Timeball Hill formations, South Africa. The range of the isotopic composition of sulphur in this pyrite is large and shows no evidence of mass-independent fractionation, indicating that atmospheric oxygen was present at significant levels (that is, greater than 10(-5) times that of the present atmospheric level) during the deposition of these units. The presence of rounded pebbles of sideritic iron formation at the base of the Rooihoogte Formation and an extensive and thick ironstone layer consisting of haematitic pisolites and oölites in the upper Timeball Hill Formation indicate that atmospheric oxygen rose significantly, perhaps for the first time, during the deposition of the Rooihoogte and Timeball Hill formations. These units were deposited between what are probably the second and third of the three Palaeoproterozoic glacial events.
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The Great Oxygenation Event at 2.45-2.22 Ga marks the rapid appearance of free oxygen in Earth's atmosphere.
“The Great Oxygenation Event (GOE) at 2.45-2.22Ga (Bekker et al., 2004;Guo et al., 2009;Gumsley et al., 2017) marks the rapid appearance of free oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere (Anbar et al., 2007;Sessions et al., 2009)”
From Secular change and the onset of plate tectonics on Earth (2020) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
Samples studied here are the oldest samples that exhibit low δ34S values in bulk rock analyses.
“Although minor occurrences of low δ34S pyrite have recently been reported in late Archean strata by in situ analysis (58), samples studied here are the oldest samples that exhibit low δ34S values in bulk rock analyses (18, 59).”
From Rapid oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 2.33 billion years ago (2016) · cites this paper as [18]
Resolving the origin of Archean hydrocarbon biomarkers would either change or strengthen the late Archean framework for the Great Oxidation Event, about 2.4 billion years ago.
“resolving the origin of the hydrocarbon biomarkers hosted in Archean rocks would either recast or solidify the late Archean framework in which we understand one of the most profound biologically mediated transformations of the planet-the Great Oxidation Event [GOE; ∼2.4 billion years ago (Ga)] (13).”
From Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks (2015) · cites this paper as [13]
In the rock record, the GOE is manifested by changes including loss of detrital uraninite, pyrite, and siderite from fluvial siliciclastic sediments at ca. 2.4 Ga; loss of iron from palaeosols older than ca. 2.4 Ga; appearance of red beds after ca. 2.3 Ga; loss of S-MIF in sulfide and sulfate minerals after 2.3 Ga; and an increase in Cr and U contents in IF at 2.45 Ga.
“In the rock record, this event is manifested by a number of changes (see Farquhar et al., 2011, 2014, for reviews), including (1) loss of easily oxidisable detrital uraninite, pyrite, and siderite from fluvial siliciclastic sediments at ca. 2.4 Ga”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
S-MIF effectively disappeared from the sedimentary record between 2.45 and 2.32 Ga.
“that effectively disappeared from the sedimentary record between 2.45 and 2.32 Ga (e.g., Bekker et al., 2004;Farquhar et al., 2000;2011).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
Disappearance of S-MIF is perhaps the most accepted evidence for onset of widespread and permanent oxygenation of Earth's surface to levels above 10^-5 PAL.
“The disappearance of S-MIF is perhaps the most accepted evidence for the onset of widespread and permanent oxygenation of the Earth's surface to levels above 10 -5 times present atmospheric levels (PAL) (see Pavlov and Kasting, 2002;Bekker et al., 2004;Farquhar et al., 2000;2011).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Bekker et al., 2004
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“The loss of MIF from the geological record (Bekker et al., 2004; Guo et al., 2009) is loosely consistent with earlier research on Earth surface oxygenation (see (Holland, 1984; Sessions et al., 2009)).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialChan, C. S., Fakra, S. C., Emerson, D., Fleming, E. J., & Edwards, K. J. (2011) · The ISME Journal · doi:10.1038/ismej.2010.173 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“Earth’s oceans were once ferruginous, and, as oxygen was produced, it was initially consumed by Fe oxidation (chemical and/or biological) before global oxygenation of the atmosphere and surface oceans, B 2.3–2.4 Ga (Farquhar et al ., 2000; Bekker et al ., 2004).”
InfluentialHow Earth's atmosphere evolved to an oxic state: A status report
Catling, D. C., & Claire, M. W. (2005) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.013 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
“3 Ga [2], and since the Paleoproterozoic organic burial pulse follows the rise of O2, it cannot be its cause.”
BackgroundLate Archean Biospheric Oxygenation and Atmospheric Evolution
Kaufman, A. J., Johnston, D. T., Farquhar, J., Masterson, A. L., Lyons, T. W., Bates, S., Anbar, A. D., Arnold, G. L., Garvin, J., & Buick, R. (2007) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1138700 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Coordination chemistry of copper proteins: How nature handles a toxic cargo for essential function
Rubino, J. T., & Franz, K. J. (2011) · Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2011.11.024 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Steroids, triterpenoids and molecular oxygen
Summons, R. E., Bradley, A. S., Jahnke, L. L., & Waldbauer, J. R. (2006) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1837 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
“The ‘step’ which occurred just prior to 2300 Ma was to greater than 10 PAL and accompanied by dramatic environmental changes indicated by large excursions in the d(13)C content of marine carbonates, and possible ‘snowball Earth’ events (Kirschvink et al. 2000; Bekker et al. 2004).”
BackgroundOxygen overshoot and recovery during the early Paleoproterozoic
Bekker, A., & Holland, H. D. (2012) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.12.012 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Self-citationAerobic bacterial pyrite oxidation and acid rock drainage during the Great Oxidation Event
Konhauser, K. O., Lalonde, S. V., Planavsky, N. J., Pecoits, E., Lyons, T. W., Mojzsis, S. J., Rouxel, O. J., Barley, M. E., Rosìere, C., Fralick, P. W., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10511 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
“Fe; and (4) that any given iron formation Cr/Fe ratio”
BackgroundSelf-citationMetal Stable Isotopes in Paleoceanography
Anbar, A. D., & Rouxel, O. J. (2007) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125029 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
“The rise of atmospheric oxygen that started by ∼2.3 Ga (Bekker et al. 2004, Farquhar et al. 2000, Holland 1984) was one of the most important changes in Earth’s history.”
BackgroundInfluentialSchirrmeister, B. E., de Vos, J. M., Antonelli, A., & Bagheri, H. C. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1209927110 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Secular change and the onset of plate tectonics on Earth
Palin, R. M., Santosh, M., Cao, W., Li, S.-S., Hernández-Uribe, D., & Parsons, A. (2020) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103172 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
“22 Ga (Bekker et al., 2004; Guo et al., 2009; Gumsley et al., 2017) marks the rapid appearance of free oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere (Anbar et al.”
BackgroundWhen did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve?
Buick, R. (2008) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0041 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Ling, H., Chen, X., Li, D., Wang, D., Shields, G., & Zhu, M. (2011) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2011.10.011 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Ono, S., Wing, B., Johnston, D., Farquhar, J., & Rumble, D. (2006) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2006.01.022 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Cell death in planktonic, photosynthetic microorganisms
Bidle, K. D., & Falkowski, P. G. (2004) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/nrmicro956 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Microbially catalyzed dolomite formation: From near-surface to burial
Petrash, D. A., Bialik, O. M., Bontognali, T. R. R., Vasconcelos, C., Roberts, J. A., McKenzie, J. A., & Konhauser, K. O. (2017) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.06.015 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
“Prior to the early stage of Earth's atmosphere oxygenation event (Bekker et al., 2004; Holland, 2006), the shallowest marine sediments were subjected to methane advection and diffusion, which allowed for the accumulation of CH4, which photo-oxidized to CO2 in the atmosphere (Pavlov et al., 2001).”
BackgroundHistory of biological metal utilization inferred through phylogenomic analysis of protein structures
Dupont, C. L., Butcher, A., Valas, R. E., Bourne, P. E., & Caetano-Anollés, G. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0912491107 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
“Second, the appearance of the first Eukarya-specific structure (nd = 0.614) was aligned with the first appearance of unambiguous physical fossils of eukaryotic life (1.6 GYA) (Fig.”
BackgroundInfluentialDauphas, N., John, S. G., & Rouxel, O. J. (2017) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2017.82.11 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
“Past studies of non-mass dependent and mass dependent sulfur isotope records of sedimentary pyrite have placed important constraints on the biogeochemical cycle of sulfur and the evolution of ocean chemistry during the rise in atmospheric oxygen (Cameron 1982; Farquhar et al. 2000, 2007; Mojzsis et al. 2003; Ono et al…”
BackgroundFeulner, G. (2012) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/2011rg000375 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
“…events is obviously crucial, and it now appears that the first global glaciation occurred close to 2.4 Ga [Kirschvink et al., 2000] and thus before the Great Oxidation Event which is dated closer to 2.3 Ga and thus around the time of the second of three Huronian glaciations [Bekker et al., 2004].”
BackgroundInfluentialSulfate was a trace constituent of Archean seawater
Crowe, S. A., Paris, G., Katsev, S., Jones, C., Kim, S.-T., Zerkle, A. L., Nomosatryo, S., Fowle, D. A., Adkins, J. F., Sessions, A. L., et al. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1258966 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
The cyanobacterial genome core and the origin of photosynthesis
Mulkidjanian, A. Y., Koonin, E. V., Makarova, K. S., Mekhedov, S. L., Sorokin, A. V., Wolf, Y. I., Dufresne, A., Partensky, F., Burd, H., Kaznadzey, D., et al. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0605709103 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Early photosynthetic eukaryotes inhabited low-salinity habitats
Sánchez-Baracaldo, P., Raven, J., Pisani, D., & Knoll, A. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1620089114 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
“32 By was set as the minimum age for the cyanobacterial root (2).”
BackgroundMass spectrometry and natural variations of iron isotopes
Dauphas, N., & Rouxel, O. J. (2006) · Mass Spectrometry Reviews · doi:10.1002/mas.20078 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
“3 Ga (Holland, 1984; Farquhar, Bao, & Thiemens, 2000; Bekker et al., 2004) was one of the most dramatic changes in the history of the Earth and the evolution of life.”
BackgroundIsotopic evidence for Mesoarchaean anoxia and changing atmospheric sulphur chemistry
Farquhar, J. D., Peters, M., Johnston, D. T., Strauß, H., Masterson, A. L., Wiechert, U., & Kaufman, A. J. (2007) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06202 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Exoplanet Biosignatures: Understanding Oxygen as a Biosignature in the Context of Its Environment
Meadows, V., Reinhard, C. T., Arney, G., Parenteau, M. N., Schwieterman, E. W., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Lincowski, A., Stapelfeldt, K. R., Rauer, H., DasSarma, S., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1727 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
“…of O2 in the atmosphere, which was likely mediated by burial and removal of organic carbon from Earth’s surface environment (Kasting, 2001; Lyons et al., 2014), evidently occurred somewhat later, between 2.45 and 2.2 billion years ago (Ga; Farquhar, 2000; Bekker et al., 2004; Canfield, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialZAHNLE, K., CLAIRE, M., & CATLING, D. (2006) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2006.00085.x · Cited by 315 · see citing works
“What is striking about the isotopic signature is that (i) it exists at all; (ii) the signal is strong through much of the Archean; and (iii) the strong signal seems to disappear abruptly ca. 2.45 Ga (Farquhar et al ., 2000; Farquhar & Wing, 2003; Bekker et al ., 2004; Papineau et al ., 2005), just before a set of seve…”
BackgroundInfluentialWhen anaerobes encounter oxygen: mechanisms of oxygen toxicity, tolerance and defence
Lu, Z., & Imlay, J. A. (2021) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/s41579-021-00583-y · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Cyanobacteria and the Great Oxidation Event: evidence from genes and fossils
Schirrmeister, B. E., Gugger, M., & Donoghue, P. C. J. (2015) · Palaeontology · doi:10.1111/pala.12178 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago
Albani, A. E., Bengtson, S., Canfield, D. E., Bekker, A., Macchiarelli, R., Mazurier, A., Hammarlund, E. U., Boulvais, P., Dupuy, J.-J., Fontaine, C., et al. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09166 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Self-citationSchmitt, F., Renger, G., Friedrich, T., Kreslavski, V. D., Zharmukhamedov, S. K., Los, D. A., Kuznetsov, V. V., & Allakhverdiev, S. I. (2014) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics · doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2014.02.005 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
A Reappraisal of Redox Melting in the Earth’s Mantle as a Function of Tectonic Setting and Time
Foley, S. (2010) · Journal of Petrology · doi:10.1093/petrology/egq061 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
“(1993) noted that a constant mantle oxidation state implies an oxygen-bearing Archaean atmosphere, which contrasts with evidence for a major increase in atmospheric oxygen levels in the early Proterozoic (Farquhar et al., 2000; Pavlov & Kasting, 2002; Bekker et al., 2004).”
BackgroundReappraisal of hydrocarbon biomarkers in Archean rocks
French, K. L., Hallmann, C., Hope, J. M., Schoon, P. L., Zumberge, J. A., Hoshino, Y., Peters, C. A., George, S. C., Love, G. D., Brocks, J. J., et al. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1419563112 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Organic-walled microfossils in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine siliciclastic deposits
Javaux, E., Marshall, C. P., & Bekker, A. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08793 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Self-citationCatling, D. C., Glein, C. R., Zahnle, K. J., & McKay, C. P. (2005) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2005.5.415 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
“, 1998) and large oscillations of sedimentary carbon isotopes that may follow increases in O2 (Knoll, 1986; Kaufman, 1997; Melezhik et al., 1999; Lindsay and Brasier, 2002; Bekker et al., 2004).”
BLANK, C. E., & SÁNCHEZ‐BARACALDO, P. (2010) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2009.00220.x · Cited by 298 · see citing works
“…changes, including low latitude ‘Snowball Earth’ glaciations at 2.3–2.4 Ga (Kirschvink et al., 2000), rapid oxygenation of the atmosphere by 2.32 Ga (Bekker et al., 2004), attenuation of mass-independent fractionation of sulfur isotopes (Farquhar et al., 2000), the Lomagundi–Jatuli carbon…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe origin of multicellularity in cyanobacteria
Schirrmeister, B. E., Antonelli, A., & Bagheri, H. C. (2011) · BMC Evolutionary Biology · doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-45 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
“22 billion years ago and provided the basis for the evolution of aerobic respiration [1-7].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe zircon archive of continent formation through time
Roberts, N. M. W., & Spencer, C. J. (2015) · Geological Society, London, Special Publications · doi:10.1144/sp389.14 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
“Interestingly, the timeframe of increased d(18)O in zircon also correlates with the Great Oxygenation Event (Bekker et al. 2004); thus, the role of this increase in atmospheric oxygen v.”
BackgroundBistability of atmospheric oxygen and the Great Oxidation
Goldblatt, C., Lenton, T. M., & Watson, A. J. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05169 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
On the origin of oxygenic photosynthesis and Cyanobacteria
Sánchez‐Baracaldo, P., & Cardona, T. (2019) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.16249 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
“Most major groups of Cyanobacterial 225 diversity, including the lineage leading to chloroplasts, appeared after the GOE.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReconstruction of secular variation in seawater sulfate concentrations
Algeo, T. J., Luo, G. M., Song, H. Y., Lyons, T. W., & Canfield, D. E. (2015) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-12-2131-2015 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Wille, M., Kramers, J., Nagler, T., Beukes, N., Schröder, S., Meisel, T., Lacassie, J. P., & Voegelin, A. (2006) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.019 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“Although the published sulfur MIF record for this age range (Bekker et al., 2004) does not support this, it still shows many gaps and therefore does not exclude it.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationA Late Archean Sulfidic Sea Stimulated by Early Oxidative Weathering of the Continents
Reinhard, C. T., Raiswell, R., Scott, C., Anbar, A. D., & Lyons, T. W. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1176711 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
The Early Origins of Terrestrial C 4 Photosynthesis
Tipple, B. J., & Mark Pagani, I. (2007) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.35.031306.140150 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Pervasive oxygenation along late Archaean ocean margins
Kendall, B., Reinhard, C. T., Lyons, T. W., Kaufman, A. J., Poulton, S. W., & Anbar, A. D. (2010) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo942 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“, we conclude that substantial O 2 accumulation occurred along this productive ocean margin more than 100 Myr before the first major increase in atmospheric O 2 (Great Oxidation Event (GOE); refs&nbs”
BackgroundReconstructing Earth's surface oxidation across the Archean-Proterozoic transition
Guo, Q., Strauss, H., Kaufman, A. J., Schröder, S., Gutzmer, J., Wing, B., Baker, M. A., Bekker, A., Jin, Q., Kim, S.-T., et al. (2009) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g25423a.1 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“…highly positive δ34S values of the upper Duitschland Formation samples are consistent with suggestions that [SO 4 ] rose with atmospheric pO 2 (cf. Bekker et al., 2004; Papineau et al., 2007), but also that progressive bacterial sulfate reduction, imparting a 34S depletion on the product sulfi…”
InfluentialSelf-citationIron Formations: Their Origins and Implications for Ancient Seawater Chemistry
Bekker, A., Planavsky, N. J., Krapež, B., Rasmussen, B., Hofmann, A., Slack, J. F., Rouxel, O. J., & Konhauser, K. O. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.00719-1 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“9.18.1 Introduction 562 9.18.2 Definition of IF 563 9.18.3 Mineralogy of IF 566 9.18.3.1 Precursor Sediments 568 9.18.3.1.1 Secular trend in Fe mineralogy of GIFs 569 9.18.4 Depositional Setting and Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework 569 9.18.4.1 Basin-Type Control on IF Deposition 571 9.18.4.2 Sedimentation Rates 572 9…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPhotosynthesis in the Archean Era
Olson, J. M. (2006) · Photosynthesis Research · doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“Several lines of geological and geochemical evidence indicate that the level of atmospheric oxygen was very low before 2.45 Ga ago, and that it had reached a much higher level by 2.22 Ga ago (Kasting 2001; Bekker et al. 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialSlack, J. F., Grenne, T., Bekker, A., Rouxel, O. J., & Lindberg, P. A. (2007) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.12.018 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“32 Ga [1] and after 0.”
Self-citationMaynard, J. B. (2010) · Economic Geology · doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.535 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Beukes, N. J., & Gutzmer, J. (2008) · doi:10.5382/rev.15.01 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Self-citationKnoll, A. H., & Nowak, M. A. (2017) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1603076 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“South African rocks that record the S-isotopic shift lie above volcanic beds dated by SHRIMP U-Pb zircon geochronology at 2480 ± 6 Ma and below pyritiferous shales dated by Re-Osmethods at 2316±7Ma (28).”
BackgroundSpecial Paper 379: Sulfur Biogeochemistry - Past and Present
Amend, J. P., Edwards, K. J., & Lyons, T. W. (2004) · Geological Society of America eBooks · doi:10.1130/spe379 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Rossier, B. C., Baker, M. E., & Studer, R. A. (2015) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00011.2014 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Hannah, J. L., Bekker, A., Stein, H. J., Markey, R. J., & Holland, H. D. (2004) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.06.013 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Bekker, A., Holland, H. D., Wang, P.-L., Rumble, D., Stein, H. J., Hannah, J. L., Coetzee, L. L., & Beukes, N. J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- University of Johannesburg (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Bekker, A.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2004-01
- Volume
- 427
- Issue
- 6970
- Pages
- 117-120
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2090027771
- Cited by
- 1,435
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 55 · 2021: 76 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 70 · 2014: 72 · 2013: 99 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 53.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Keywords
- Great Oxidation, atmospheric oxygen rise, sulfur isotopes, mass-independent fractionation, oolites, Neoproterozoic, Precambrian geochemistry
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Carbonates, Cold Climate, Geography, Ice, Iron, Isotopes, Oxygen, South Africa, Sulfides, Sulfur, Time Factors, Geologic Sediments
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