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Tracing the stepwise oxygenation of the Proterozoic ocean
Open accessAbstract
Biogeochemical signatures preserved in ancient sedimentary rocks provide clues to the nature and timing of the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere. Geochemical data suggest that oxygenation proceeded in two broad steps near the beginning and end of the Proterozoic eon (2,500 to 542 million years ago). The oxidation state of the Proterozoic ocean between these two steps and the timing of deep-ocean oxygenation have important implications for the evolutionary course of life on Earth but remain poorly known. Here we present a new perspective on ocean oxygenation based on the authigenic accumulation of the redox-sensitive transition element molybdenum in sulphidic black shales. Accumulation of authigenic molybdenum from sea water is already seen in shales by 2,650 Myr ago; however, the small magnitudes of these enrichments reflect weak or transient sources of dissolved molybdenum before about 2,200 Myr ago, consistent with minimal oxidative weathering of the continents. Enrichments indicative of persistent and vigorous oxidative weathering appear in shales deposited at roughly 2,150 Myr ago, more than 200 million years after the initial rise in atmospheric oxygen. Subsequent expansion of sulphidic conditions after about 1,800 Myr ago (refs 8, 9) maintained a mid-Proterozoic molybdenum reservoir below 20 per cent of the modern inventory, which in turn may have acted as a nutrient feedback limiting the spatiotemporal distribution of euxinic (sulphidic) bottom waters and perhaps the evolutionary and ecological expansion of eukaryotic organisms. By 551 Myr ago, molybdenum contents reflect a greatly expanded oceanic reservoir due to oxygenation of the deep ocean and corresponding decrease in sulphidic conditions in the sediments and water column.
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In the citing paper
“Furthermore, Archean marine sediments have low concentrations of elements that enter rivers during oxidative continental weathering (68–70).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [68]
In the citing paper
“Low concentrations of redox sensitive elements (e.g., Mo and V) and their low ratios with TOC of marine black shales have been observed throughout Earth history before the Ediacaran, and interpreted as the result of low oxygen concentration in ocean and atmosphere33,34.”
From Subtle Cr isotope signals track the variably anoxic Cryogenian interglacial period with voluminous manganese accumulation and decrease in biodiversity (2019) · cites this paper as [33]
In the citing paper
“The uranium isotope record indicates that the modeled oxygenation state of the early Cambrian oceans was neither steady nor monotonous (7–9, 47, 48), but rather oscillated dramatically in concert with changes to the global marine carbon cycle as indicated by the δ13C curve.”
From Atmosphere-ocean oxygen and productivity dynamics during early animal radiations (2019) · cites this paper as [47]
In the citing paper
“Based on the collective data for the boring billion (Arnold et al., 2004; Scott et al., 2008; Planavsky et al., 2011; Poulton and Canfield, 2011; Partin et al., 2013; Reinhard et al., 2013; as reviewed in Lyons et al., 2014), Fe-rich (ferruginous) waters must have dominated the deeper ocean.”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Muted metal enrichments in euxinic shales support the possibility of low marine molybdenum (Mo) inventories during the boring billion due to high rates of sediment uptake within the anoxic and euxinic oceans (Scott et al., 2008)”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“The contrasting behaviors of molybdenum, chromium, uranium, and rhenium in organic-rich marginal sedimentary rocks deposited throughout the mid-Proterozoic qualitatively indicate widespread marine anoxia (Partin et al. 2013, Reinhard et al. 2013, Scott et al. 2008, Sheen et al. 2018)”
From The History of Ocean Oxygenation (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al. 2008
In the citing paper
“All available data that constrain the marine landscape in the midProterozoic ocean are consistent with only locally developed euxinic conditions along productive continental margins (e.g., in oxygen-minimum zones) or within intracratonic basins”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“The emerging picture from black shales indicates that Precambrian seawater reservoirs of redox-sensitive elements were nowhere close to those of the Phanerozoic (e.g., Scott et al., 2008; Partin et al., 2013b; Reinhard et al., 2013).”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Following increasing oxygenation in late Neoproterozoic (Canfield et al., 2007;Scott et al., 2008;Sahoo et al., 2012;Lyons et al., 2014a, Planavsky et al., 2014a;Sahoo et al., 2016), these sulfide complexes would have become less abundant, resulting in greater availability of Cd, Cu, and Zn.”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“the marine metal reservoir exerts a first order control on enrichments in euxinic and anoxic sediments (Algeo and Lyons, 2006;Lyons et al., 2009;Scott et al., 2008;Reinhard et al., 2013b).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
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Self-citationTrace element content of sedimentary pyrite as a new proxy for deep-time ocean–atmosphere evolution
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Self-citationRise to modern levels of ocean oxygenation coincided with the Cambrian radiation of animals
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“43; Scott et al., 2008).”
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Oceanic oxygenation events in the anoxic Ediacaran ocean
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“Mo concentrations increased following the transition to an oxic ocean (39); however, in direct contrast to Zn, akaryotes dedicate a larger proportion of their proteome to binding Mo relative to Eukarya (Table S1).”
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“Trace-metal concentrations of laminated, organic-rich shale facies have long been used to draw inferences concerning paleoredox conditions as well as metal inventory in ancient oceans (Algeo et al. 2004; Brumsack 2006; Lyons and Severmann 2006; Lehmann et al. 2007; Scott et al. 2008) with potential constraints on past…”
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THE STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF MOLYBDENUM
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“…dissolved in river waters and leaving primarily in association with authigenic Fe–Mn oxides and anoxic sediments underlying oxic or anoxic waters, where hydrogen sulfide is present (Crusius et al. 1996; Morford and Emerson 1999; Scott et al. 2008; Scott and Lyons 2012; Reinhard et al. 2013a).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationMo isotope fractionation during adsorption to Fe (oxyhydr)oxides
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“Wignall et al. [2005] document anoxia and euxinia through the upper semicelatum Subzone and lower exaratum Subzone in Yorkshire on the basis of the size of pyrite framboids, and DOP.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIsotopic evidence for biological nitrogen fixation by molybdenum-nitrogenase from 3.2 Gyr
Stüeken, E. E., Buick, R., Guy, B. M., & Koehler, M. C. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14180 · Cited by 304
The iron paleoredox proxies: A guide to the pitfalls, problems and proper practice
Raiswell, R., Hardisty, D. S., Lyons, T. W., Canfield, D. E., Owens, J. D., Planavsky, N. J., Poulton, S. W., & Reinhard, C. T. (2018) · American Journal of Science · doi:10.2475/05.2018.03 · Cited by 303
Self-citationOxygen, animals and oceanic ventilation: an alternative view
BUTTERFIELD, N. J. (2009) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2009.00188.x · Cited by 300
On the origin of oxygenic photosynthesis and Cyanobacteria
Sánchez‐Baracaldo, P., & Cardona, T. (2019) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.16249 · Cited by 290
“A second major oxygenation event known as the Neoproterozoic Oxidation Event 55 (NOE) ~800-600 Million years ago (Mya), significantly increased atmospheric O2 56 concentrations (Scott et al., 2008) similar to those found in today’s atmosphere.”
BackgroundKendall, B., Komiya, T., Lyons, T. W., Bates, S. M., Gordon, G. W., Romaniello, S. J., Jiang, G., Creaser, R. A., Xiao, S., McFadden, K., et al. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.02.025 · Cited by 286
Self-citationA Late Archean Sulfidic Sea Stimulated by Early Oxidative Weathering of the Continents
Reinhard, C. T., Raiswell, R., Scott, C., Anbar, A. D., & Lyons, T. W. (2009) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1176711 · Cited by 287
Self-citationPervasive oxygenation along late Archaean ocean margins
Kendall, B., Reinhard, C. T., Lyons, T. W., Kaufman, A. J., Poulton, S. W., & Anbar, A. D. (2010) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo942 · Cited by 286
Self-citationAnoxygenic photosynthesis modulated Proterozoic oxygen and sustained Earth's middle age
Johnston, D. T., Wolfe-Simon, F., Pearson, A., & Knoll, A. H. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0909248106 · Cited by 329
“O the past decade, paleoenvironmental insights from iron speciation (1–7), sulfur isotopes (3, 8–12), Mo systematics (13, 14), and organic geochemistry (15) have converged on a view of Proterozoic oceans (16, 17).”
BackgroundIron Formations: Their Origins and Implications for Ancient Seawater Chemistry
Bekker, A., Planavsky, N. J., Krapež, B., Rasmussen, B., Hofmann, A., Slack, J. F., Rouxel, O. J., & Konhauser, K. O. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.00719-1 · Cited by 292
“…shift in weathering regimes constitutes Earth’s first acid continental drainage system (cf. Bekker and Holland, 2012), and accounts for independent evidence of increased supply of sulfate (Bekker et al., 2004) and sulfide-hosted trace elements to the oceans at that time (Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMaynard, J. B. (2010) · Economic Geology · doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.535 · Cited by 275
Pi, D.-H., Liu, C.-Q., Shields-Zhou, G. A., & Jiang, S.-Y. (2013) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2011.07.004 · Cited by 285
Secular Evolution of Continents and the Earth System
Cawood, P. A., Chowdhury, P., Mulder, J. A., Hawkesworth, C. J., Capitanio, F. A., Gunawardana, P. M., & Nebel, O. (2022) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/2022rg000789 · Cited by 286
Kendall, B., Creaser, R. A., Gordon, G. W., & Anbar, A. D. (2009) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2009.02.013 · Cited by 259
“In these cases, the seawater trace metal inventory may become depleted (Algeo, 2004; Algeo and Lyons, 2006; Scott et al., 2008).”
InfluentialSelf-citationStepwise oxygenation of the Paleozoic atmosphere
Krause, A. J., Mills, B. J. W., Zhang, S., Planavsky, N. J., Lenton, T. M., & Poulton, S. W. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06383-y · Cited by 255
Self-citationTosca, N. J., Guggenheim, S., & Pufahl, P. K. (2016) · Geological Society of America Bulletin · doi:10.1130/b31339.1 · Cited by 241
Quantifying the areal extent and dissolved oxygen concentrations of Archean oxygen oases
Olson, S. L., Kump, L. R., & Kasting, J. F. (2013) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.08.012 · Cited by 239
“Oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere and surface ocean preceded the eventual oxygenation of the deep ocean by nearly two billion years (Fike et al., 2006; Canfield et al., 2007; Scott et al., 2008), and atmospheric oxygenation was apparently separated from the onset of biological oxygen production by perhaps 300 million…”
BackgroundTrace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution
Robbins, L. J., Lalonde, S. V., Planavsky, N. J., Partin, C. A., Reinhard, C. T., Kendall, B., Scott, C., Hardisty, D. S., Gill, B. C., Alessi, D. S., et al. (2016) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.013 · Cited by 227
“…can provide a useful constraint on the spatial extent of ocean euxinia on a global scale, with higher euxinic sediment Mo concentrations expected in oceans that were otherwise well-oxygenated and Mo replete (e.g., Scott et al., 2008; Dahl et al., 2010; Scott and Lyons, 2012; Kendall et al., 2015a).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationGeological constraints on the origin of oxygenic photosynthesis
Farquhar, J., Zerkle, A. L., & Bekker, A. (2011) · Photosynthesis Research · doi:10.1007/s11120-010-9594-0 · Cited by 223
“…and Mo/TOC records for sediments with clear communication with the open ocean do not show evidence for a large oceanic Mo inventory before *2.15 Ga (Scott et al. 2008), considerably later than most estimates for the timing of the GOE and well after the disappearance of detrital sulfides from the…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationNitrogen isotope fractionation by alternative nitrogenases and past ocean anoxia
Zhang, X., Sigman, D. M., Morel, F. M. M., & Kraepiel, A. M. L. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1402976111 · Cited by 215
“Certain organic-rich marine sediments from midCretaceous OAEs (42, 44–47) and the early Archean (48–51), thought to be deposited under low Mo conditions (27, 31), have extremely low δ(15)N (<–2‰, Fig.”
BackgroundOrogenic quiescence in Earth’s middle age
Tang, M., Chu, X., Hao, J., & Shen, B. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abf1876 · Cited by 220
“…scarcity of phosphorus, molybdenum, and other trace metals would dampen primary productivity and reduce O 2 production ( 36 ), which would, in turn, further decrease the molybdenum flux from the continents ( 37 ) and enhance molybdenum and phosphorus removal from the Proterozoic oceans ( 37-39 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe case for a Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event: Geochemical evidence and biological consequences
Shields, G., & Och, L. M. (2011) · GSA Today · doi:10.1130/gsatg102a.1 · Cited by 215
“(F) Compilation of molybdenum concentrations in black shales from different sections around the world (mainly from Scott et al., 2008, and references therein).”
BackgroundOxygen and the Spatial Structure of Microbial Communities
Fenchel, T., & Finlay, B. J. (2008) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1469-185x.2008.00054.x · Cited by 216
“…(<2% of current atmospheric O2 concentration) until about 2.2 billion years ago; it must have reached values similar to current levels during the early Palaeozoic, although evidence indicates that the atmospheric oxygen level fluctuated during the Phanerozoic (Canfield, 2005; Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialLow-oxygen waters limited habitable space for early animals
Tostevin, R., Wood, R. A., Shields, G. A., Poulton, S. W., Guilbaud, R., Bowyer, F., Penny, A. M., He, T., Curtis, A., Hoffmann, K. H., et al. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms12818 · Cited by 213
Self-citationFarquhar, J., Wu, N., Canfield, D. E., & Oduro, H. (2010) · Economic Geology · doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.105.3.509 · Cited by 214
Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview
Lyons, T. W., Diamond, C. W., Planavsky, N. J., Reinhard, C. T., & Li, C. (2021) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2418 · Cited by 211
“, 2018); (D) molybdenum (Scott et al., 2008; Reinhard et al., 2013) and (E) uranium concentrations (Partin et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationOrigin of marine planktonic cyanobacteria
Sánchez‐Baracaldo, P. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep17418 · Cited by 208
Metal availability and the expanding network of microbial metabolisms in the Archaean eon
Moore, E. K., Jelen, B. I., Giovannelli, D., Raanan, H., & Falkowski, P. G. (2017) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo3006 · Cited by 204
Narbonne, G. M., Xiao, S., Shields, G., & Gehlîng, J. G. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-59425-9.00018-4 · Cited by 202
Gregory, D. D., Cracknell, M. J., Large, R. R., McGoldrick, P. J., Kuhn, S. R., Масленников, В. В., Baker, M. J., Fox, N., Belousov, I. A., Figueroa, M. C., et al. (2019) · Economic Geology · doi:10.5382/econgeo.4654 · Cited by 197
“Enrichments in molybdenum are known to occur in a number of sedimentary settings, particularly when euxinic conditions are present (Lyons et al., 2003; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Scott et al., 2008; Lyons et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAndersen, M. B., Stirling, C. H., & Weyer, S. (2017) · Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry · doi:10.2138/rmg.2017.82.19 · Cited by 218
Molybdenum behavior during early diagenesis: Insights from Mo isotopes
Poulson, R. L., McManus, J., Severmann, S., & Berelson, W. M. (2009) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1029/2008gc002180 · Cited by 199
“In addition, we note here the Mo elemental budget recently reported by Scott et al. [2008] .”
BackgroundFeng, L., Li, C., Huang, J., Chang, H., & Chu, X. (2014) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2014.03.002 · Cited by 193
Self-citationUnifying concepts in anaerobic respiration: Insights from dissimilatory sulfur metabolism
Grein, F., Ramos, A. R., Venceslau, S. S., & Pereira, I. A. C. (2013) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics · doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2012.09.001 · Cited by 200
“deep oceanwaters remained anoxic and sulfidic or ferruginous, overlaid by an oxygenated surface layer [12,19–21], a state that may have been perpetuated until as recently as ~600 million years ago by anoxygenic photosynthesis with sulfide as electron donor [22].”
BackgroundIron isotope composition of some Archean and Proterozoic iron formations
Planavsky, N. J., Rouxel, O. J., Bekker, A., Hofmann, A., Little, C. T. S., & Lyons, T. W. (2011) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.12.001 · Cited by 187
“This model is consistent with the presence of markedly negative Fe isotope values in shales independently determined to be deposited under euxinic (Fe limited) conditions (Rouxel et al., 2005; Scott et al., 2008, 2011; Reinhard et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationDynamic redox conditions control late Ediacaran metazoan ecosystems in the Nama Group, Namibia
Wood, R. A., Poulton, S. W., Prave, A. R., Hoffmann, K.-H., Clarkson, M. O., Guilbaud, R., Lyne, J. W., Tostevin, R., Bowyer, F., Penny, A. M., et al. (2015) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2015.02.004 · Cited by 188
Self-citationXu, L., Lehmann, B., Mao, J., Nägler, T. F., Neubert, N., Böttcher, M. E., & Escher, P. (2012) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.05.016 · Cited by 186
“Mo enrichment may also be due to adsorption to organic matter (Algeo and Maynard, 2004; Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundCox, G. M., Halverson, G. P., Minarik, W. G., Heron, D. P. L., Macdonald, F. A., Bellefroid, E. J., & Strauss, J. V. (2013) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.08.002 · Cited by 187
“…of animals and broadly at a time when atmospheric oxygen levels are thought to have increased towards modern levels, ultimately high enough to ventilate the deep ocean (Canfield and Teske, 1996; Catling and Claire, 2005; Och and Shields-Zhou, 2012; Sahoo et al., 2012; Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundHamilton, T. L., Bryant, D. A., & Macalady, J. L. (2015) · Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1111/1462-2920.13118 · Cited by 197
“, 2011) or sulfidic (euxinic) (Meyer and Kump, 2008), particularly in restricted basins and along productive margins (Scott et al., 2008; Lyons et al., 2009; Poulton et al., 2010; Planavsky et al., 2011; Poulton and Canfield, 2011).”
BackgroundDoes pyrite act as an important host for molybdenum in modern and ancient euxinic sediments
Chappaz, A., Lyons, T., Gregory, D., Reinhard, C., Gill, B. C., Li, C., & Large, R. (2014) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2013.10.028 · Cited by 157
“Past work suggests that Mo was generally less abundant in the ocean during those earlier episodes—in the Precambrian compared to the Phanerozoic (Scott et al., 2008)— but we can think of no straightforward reason that would explain why a lower fraction of pyrite-Mo specifically relative to matrix-hosted Mo should refl…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationZeng, S., Wang, J., Fu, X., Chen, W., Feng, X., Wang, D., Song, C., & Wang, Z. (2015) · Marine and Petroleum Geology · doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015.02.031 · Cited by 181
Ader, M., Sansjofre, P., Halverson, G. P., Busigny, V., Trindade, R. I. F., Kunzmann, M., & Nogueira, A. C. R. (2014) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.03.042 · Cited by 180
“All show a dramatic increase in 75 abundances in the Ediacaran first interpreted to record deep ocean ventilation (635–541 Ma; 76 Scott et al., 2008; Och and Shields-Zhou, 2012; Sahoo et al., 2012; Partin et al., 2013), broadly 77 consistent with iron speciation data.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Scott, C., Lyons, T. W., Bekker, A., Shen, Y., Poulton, S. W., Chu, X., & Anbar, A. D.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
- Université du Québec à Montréal (CA)
- Newcastle University (GB)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Scott, C.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2008-03
- Volume
- 452
- Issue
- 7186
- Pages
- 456-459
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2041762395
- Cited by
- 1,098
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 56
- FWCI
- 37.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Danmarks Grundforskningsfond
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- Natural Environment Research Council (NE/C518465/2)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- molybdenum, black shales, oxidative weathering, total organic carbon, ocean redox state, atmospheric oxygenation, Neoproterozoic, Precambrian, sulfur cycling, early animal evolution, Precambrian stratigraphy
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Molybdenum, Oceans and Seas, Oxygen, Seawater, Sulfides, Time Factors, Geologic Sediments, History, Ancient
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