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Tracing the stepwise oxygenation of the Proterozoic ocean
Open accessAbstract
Biogeochemical signatures preserved in ancient sedimentary rocks provide clues to the nature and timing of the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere. Geochemical data suggest that oxygenation proceeded in two broad steps near the beginning and end of the Proterozoic eon (2,500 to 542 million years ago). The oxidation state of the Proterozoic ocean between these two steps and the timing of deep-ocean oxygenation have important implications for the evolutionary course of life on Earth but remain poorly known. Here we present a new perspective on ocean oxygenation based on the authigenic accumulation of the redox-sensitive transition element molybdenum in sulphidic black shales. Accumulation of authigenic molybdenum from sea water is already seen in shales by 2,650 Myr ago; however, the small magnitudes of these enrichments reflect weak or transient sources of dissolved molybdenum before about 2,200 Myr ago, consistent with minimal oxidative weathering of the continents. Enrichments indicative of persistent and vigorous oxidative weathering appear in shales deposited at roughly 2,150 Myr ago, more than 200 million years after the initial rise in atmospheric oxygen. Subsequent expansion of sulphidic conditions after about 1,800 Myr ago (refs 8, 9) maintained a mid-Proterozoic molybdenum reservoir below 20 per cent of the modern inventory, which in turn may have acted as a nutrient feedback limiting the spatiotemporal distribution of euxinic (sulphidic) bottom waters and perhaps the evolutionary and ecological expansion of eukaryotic organisms. By 551 Myr ago, molybdenum contents reflect a greatly expanded oceanic reservoir due to oxygenation of the deep ocean and corresponding decrease in sulphidic conditions in the sediments and water column.
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“Furthermore, Archean marine sediments have low concentrations of elements that enter rivers during oxidative continental weathering (68–70).”
From The Archean atmosphere (2020) · cites this paper as [68]
In the citing paper
“Low concentrations of redox sensitive elements (e.g., Mo and V) and their low ratios with TOC of marine black shales have been observed throughout Earth history before the Ediacaran, and interpreted as the result of low oxygen concentration in ocean and atmosphere33,34.”
From Subtle Cr isotope signals track the variably anoxic Cryogenian interglacial period with voluminous manganese accumulation and decrease in biodiversity (2019) · cites this paper as [33]
In the citing paper
“The uranium isotope record indicates that the modeled oxygenation state of the early Cambrian oceans was neither steady nor monotonous (7–9, 47, 48), but rather oscillated dramatically in concert with changes to the global marine carbon cycle as indicated by the δ13C curve.”
From Atmosphere-ocean oxygen and productivity dynamics during early animal radiations (2019) · cites this paper as [47]
In the citing paper
“Based on the collective data for the boring billion (Arnold et al., 2004; Scott et al., 2008; Planavsky et al., 2011; Poulton and Canfield, 2011; Partin et al., 2013; Reinhard et al., 2013; as reviewed in Lyons et al., 2014), Fe-rich (ferruginous) waters must have dominated the deeper ocean.”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Muted metal enrichments in euxinic shales support the possibility of low marine molybdenum (Mo) inventories during the boring billion due to high rates of sediment uptake within the anoxic and euxinic oceans (Scott et al., 2008)”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“The contrasting behaviors of molybdenum, chromium, uranium, and rhenium in organic-rich marginal sedimentary rocks deposited throughout the mid-Proterozoic qualitatively indicate widespread marine anoxia (Partin et al. 2013, Reinhard et al. 2013, Scott et al. 2008, Sheen et al. 2018)”
From The History of Ocean Oxygenation (2022) · cites this paper as Scott et al. 2008
In the citing paper
“All available data that constrain the marine landscape in the midProterozoic ocean are consistent with only locally developed euxinic conditions along productive continental margins (e.g., in oxygen-minimum zones) or within intracratonic basins”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“The emerging picture from black shales indicates that Precambrian seawater reservoirs of redox-sensitive elements were nowhere close to those of the Phanerozoic (e.g., Scott et al., 2008; Partin et al., 2013b; Reinhard et al., 2013).”
From Iron formations: A global record of Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic environmental history (2017) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“Following increasing oxygenation in late Neoproterozoic (Canfield et al., 2007;Scott et al., 2008;Sahoo et al., 2012;Lyons et al., 2014a, Planavsky et al., 2014a;Sahoo et al., 2016), these sulfide complexes would have become less abundant, resulting in greater availability of Cd, Cu, and Zn.”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
In the citing paper
“the marine metal reservoir exerts a first order control on enrichments in euxinic and anoxic sediments (Algeo and Lyons, 2006;Lyons et al., 2009;Scott et al., 2008;Reinhard et al., 2013b).”
From Trace elements at the intersection of marine biological and geochemical evolution (2016) · cites this paper as Scott et al., 2008
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“is inferred to have triggered the oxidation of the deep oceans (e.g. Fike et al., 2006; Canfield et al., 2007; McFadden et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2008; though see Lenton et al., 2014), broadly coincident with a shift from ferruginous to oxic deep-marine conditions, and large fluctuations in global carbon isotopic ra…”
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“This results in large metal enrichments in the few anoxic regions of a well-oxygenated ocean and small enrichments in anoxic settings in a largely anoxic ocean (see Scott et al., 2008; Reinhard et al., 2013).”
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“Molybdenum (Mo) is a redox sensitive trace metal that can provide information on Earth’s global ocean oxygenation over geological time (Arnold et al., 2004; Wille et al., 2007; Pearce et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2008; Dahl et al., 2010b, 2011).”
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“from Holland (2002) and Sleep (2005). I have changed things in two ways, though, from the budgeting done inHolland (2002). First, I present numbers in terms of H2 equivalents rather than O2 equivalents.”
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“…and Wedepohl 1961), organic-rich shales are characterised by authigenic enrichments of redox-sensitive trace metals such as Mo, Ni, U, Cu, V and Zn, leading to metal/Al ratios well above crustal values (e.g., Algeo and Maynard 2004, Brumsack 2006, Tribovillard et al. 2006, Scott et al. 2008, 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMolybdenum isotope constraints on the extent of late Paleoproterozoic ocean euxinia
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“Suboxic sediments are characterized by variable δ98/95Mo values, but lighter than those of euxinic sediments that precipitated under H2S-rich conditions (Scott et al., 2008; Siebert et al., 2003, 2006).”
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Molybdenum evidence for expansive sulfidic water masses in ~750Ma oceans
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“44 We propose that anoxic and sulfidic (euxinic) conditions governed Mo cycling in the 45 oceans even as ferruginous subsurface waters re-appeared 800-750 Ma, and we 46 interpret this anoxic ocean state to reflect a markedly lower atmospheric and 47 oceanic O2 level, consistent with the hypothesis that pO2 Keywords: E…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationCo‐evolution of early Earth environments and microbial life
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Self-citationMineralogical constraints on the paleoenvironments of the Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation
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“Typical Proterozoic Mo concentrations in marine organic-rich shales of 24 ppm (34) are comparable with concentrations in organic-rich mudstones above the cap in basin sections (avg.”
BackgroundOpen Questions on the Origin of Eukaryotes
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“54 Ga) oceans [46] but also in contemporary oceanic (and freshwater) sediments, where Lokiarchaeaota and related archaeal lineages thrive [9].”
BackgroundProbing the Earth’s Deep Interior Through Geochemistry
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Cobalt and marine redox evolution
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“…open marine conditions (5 µg Co cm-3 280 kyr-1) are similar to Co MAR in oxic marine sediments (2.3 to 5 µg Co cm-3 kyr-1), in 281 contrast to Mo (see Scott et al., 2008), demonstrating that expansion of euxinic 282 sediments at the expense of oxic sediments, or vice versa, should not result in…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationReconstruction of early Cambrian ocean chemistry from Mo isotopes
Wen, H., Fan, H., Zhang, Y., Cloquet, C., & Carignan, J. (2015) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.05.008 · Cited by 131
Bekker, A., Holmden, C. E., Beukes, N. J., Kenig, F., Eglinton, B., & Patterson, W. P. (2008) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.04.021 · Cited by 127
“The redoxcline with the pronounced underlying sulfidic conditions was indeed inferred independently for the Pretoria basin on the basis of Fe speciation and δ34S data (Shen and Bekker, 2006; Bekker et al., 2006b; Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOn the co‐evolution of surface oxygen levels and animals
Cole, D. B., Mills, D. B., Erwin, D. H., Sperling, E. A., Porter, S. M., Reinhard, C. T., & Planavsky, N. J. (2020) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12382 · Cited by 141
“Finally, Scott et al. (2008) studied molybdenum contents in euxinic black shales—which can track the global seafloor redox landscape—and found evidence for a decrease in euxinic conditions in the late Ediacaran.”
BackgroundMethodGao, P., He, Z.-L., Li, S., Lash, G., Li, B.-Y., Huang, B., & Yan, D. (2018) · Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.06.019 · Cited by 114
Uranium in iron formations and the rise of atmospheric oxygen
Partin, C. A., Lalonde, S. V., Planavsky, N. J., Bekker, A., Rouxel, O. J., Lyons, T. W., & Konhauser, K. O. (2013) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.09.005 · Cited by 124
“But, even beyond that geologically short-lived event, the idea of a rise and a subsequent fall in oxygen levels in the Paleoproterozoic atmosphere–ocean system and persistent, low oxygen in the deep ocean throughout themiddle Proterozoic is gaining traction through emerging datasets (Scott et al., 2008; Planavsky et a…”
BackgroundSelf-citationBasin redox and primary productivity within the Mesoproterozoic Roper Seaway
Cox, G., Jarrett, A., Edwards, D., Crockford, P., Halverson, G., Collins, A., Poirier, A., & Li, Z.-X. (2016) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.06.025 · Cited by 117
Wei, G.-Y., Planavsky, N. J., He, T., Zhang, F., Stockey, R. G., Cole, D. B., Lin, Y.-B., & Ling, H.-F. (2021) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103506 · Cited by 122
“increased since the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary (Partin et al., 2013; Scott et al., 2008; Sahoo et al., 2016), implying that the sizes of global Mo and U reservoirs from the late Ediacaran to the early Cambrian are”
BackgroundAtmosphere oxygen cycling through the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic
Large, R. R., Mukherjee, I., Gregory, D., Steadman, J., Corkrey, R., & Danyushevsky, L. V. (2019) · Mineralium Deposita · doi:10.1007/s00126-019-00873-9 · Cited by 122
Reconciling proxy records and models of Earth's oxygenation during the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic
Tostevin, R., & Mills, B. J. W. (2020) · Interface Focus · doi:10.1098/rsfs.2019.0137 · Cited by 128
“Evidence for the NOE included broad increases in the average molybdenum and vanadium concentrations in black shales [3]; an increase in the isotope fractionation between sulfate and pyrite (Δ(34)SSO4−pyr) [4]; and Fe speciation evidence for local deep water oxygenation [5].”
BackgroundLarge, R. R., Mukherjee, I., Gregory, D. D., Steadman, J. A., Масленников, В. В., & Meffre, S. (2017) · Economic Geology · doi:10.2113/econgeo.112.2.423 · Cited by 126
Bioavailability of zinc in marine systems through time
Scott, C., Planavsky, N. J., Dupont, C. L., Kendall, B., Gill, B. C., Robbins, L. J., Husband, K. F., Arnold, G. L., Wing, B. A., Poulton, S. W., et al. (2013) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo1679 · Cited by 120
Self-citationHurtgen, M. T., Pruss, S. B., & Knoll, A. H. (2009) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.02.033 · Cited by 119
Mgeladze, A., Lordkipanidze, D., Moncel, M., et al. (2011) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.10.008 · Cited by 119
Schoepp-Cothenet, B., van Lis, R., Philippot, P., Magalon, A., Russell, M., & Nitschke, W. (2012) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep00263 · Cited by 109
“Mo-isotope analyses on samples from the Archaean era indeed show substantially lower levels than during Phanerozoic time”
BackgroundTrace Element Content of Pyrite from the Kapai Slate, St. Ives Gold District, Western Australia
Gregory, D. D., Large, R. R., Bath, A. B., Steadman, J. A., Wu, S., Danyushevsky, L. V., Bull, S. W., Holden, P. N., & Ireland, T. R. (2016) · Economic Geology · doi:10.2113/econgeo.111.6.1297 · Cited by 119
Luo, G., Hallmann, C., Xie, S., Ruan, X., & Summons, R. E. (2014) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2014.12.022 · Cited by 121
“84 Ga Rove Formation, for example, are characterized by values up to 62 ppm (Scott et al., 2008).”
Babechuk, M. G., Widdowson, M., Murphy, M., & Kamber, B. S. (2014) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.12.017 · Cited by 118
“In deep geological time, themarineMo inventorywas drastically different from today's and it has been reasoned thatMoflux from landonly became significant after the rise of atmospheric oxygen at the GOE, due primarily to continental sulphide weathering, such that the supply was able to exceed its withdrawal into marine…”
BackgroundOch, L. M., Cremonese, L., Shields, G., Poulton, S. W., Struck, U., Ling, H., Li, D., Chen, X., Manning, C., THIRLWALL, M. F., et al. (2015) · Sedimentology · doi:10.1111/sed.12220 · Cited by 116
“…during the putative NOE has mainly been inferred from single sedimentary successions deposited on the Yangtze Platform (Canfield et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2008; Sahoo et al., 2012), while a relatively simple palaeobathymetry has been assumed in multiproxy palaeoredox studies (e.g. Li et…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationGuo, H., Du, Y., Kah, L. C., Huang, J., Hu, C., Huang, H., & Yu, W. (2012) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2012.09.023 · Cited by 119
Uranium isotopes in marine carbonates as a global ocean paleoredox proxy: A critical review
Zhang, F., Lenton, T. M., del Rey, Á., Romaniello, S. J., Chen, X., Planavsky, N. J., Clarkson, M. O., Dahl, T. W., Lau, K., Wang, W., et al. (2020) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2020.05.011 · Cited by 119
Self-citationMoyano, I. T., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., et al. (2010) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.12.011 · Cited by 116
Cheng, M., Li, C., Zhou, L., Algeo, T. J., Zhang, F., Romaniello, S. J., Jin, C., Lei, L., Feng, L., & Jiang, S. (2016) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2016.03.035 · Cited by 118
Evidence of molybdenum association with particulate organic matter under sulfidic conditions
Dahl, T. W., Chappaz, A., Hoek, J., McKenzie, C. J., Svane, S., & Canfield, D. E. (2016) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12220 · Cited by 114
“Given this contrasting, redoxdependent relationship, many studies have incorporated Mo as a proxy for the amount of oxygen in ancient and recent marine systems (Arnold, Anbar, Barling, & Lyons, 2004; Dahl, Hammarlund et al., 2010; Scott et al., 2008; Siebert, Nägler, Von Blanckenburg, & Kramers, 2003; Wille et al., 20…”
Atmosphere-ocean oxygen and productivity dynamics during early animal radiations
Dahl, T. W., Connelly, J. N., Li, D., Kouchinsky, A., Gill, B. C., Porter, S., Maloof, A. C., & Bizzarro, M. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1901178116 · Cited by 113
Controls on the evolution of Ediacaran metazoan ecosystems: A redox perspective
Bowyer, F., Wood, R. A., & Poulton, S. W. (2017) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12232 · Cited by 112
Self-citationThe Geologic History of Seawater
Lowenstein, T. K., Kendall, B., & Anbar, A. D. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-095975-7.00621-5 · Cited by 117
Self-citationUranium isotope fractionation during coprecipitation with aragonite and calcite
Chen, X., Romaniello, S. J., Herrmann, A. D., Wasylenki, L. E., & Anbar, A. D. (2016) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2016.05.022 · Cited by 111
Self-citationGaschnig, R. M., Reinhard, C. T., Planavsky, N. J., Wang, X., Asael, D., & Chauvel, C. (2017) · Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems · doi:10.1002/2017gc007085 · Cited by 111
Late Archean euxinic conditions before the rise of atmospheric oxygen
Scott, C. T., Bekker, A., Reinhard, C. T., Schnetger, B., Krapež, B., Rumble, D., & Lyons, T. W. (2011) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g31571.1 · Cited by 109
Ancient Sulfur Cycling and Oxygenation of the Early Biosphere
Lyons, T. W., & Gill, B. C. (2010) · Elements · doi:10.2113/gselements.6.2.93 · Cited by 107
Self-citationThe geobiological nitrogen cycle: From microbes to the mantle
Zerkle, A. L., & Mikhail, S. (2017) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12228 · Cited by 113
“Current estimates of molybdenum concentrations in Precambrian oceans are insufficient to resolve this issue at present (Reinhard, Raiswell, Scott, Anbar, & Lyons, 2009; Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMolybdenum limitation of microbial nitrogen assimilation in aquatic ecosystems and pure cultures
Glass, J. B., Axler, R. P., Chandra, S., & Goldman, C. R. (2012) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00331 · Cited by 112
“Before the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) ∼2.4 billion years ago, the riverine flux of Mo to the ocean would have been small due to minimal oxidative weathering of sulfides, the major source of Mo on the continents (Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialHydrocarbon biomarkers of Neoproterozoic to Lower Cambrian oils from eastern Siberia
Kelly, A. E., Love, G. D., Zumberge, J. E., & Summons, R. E. (2011) · Organic Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2011.03.028 · Cited by 106
“…ventilation began about the time of the Cambrian Explosion (Cloud, 1968; Des Marais et al., 1992; Canfield and Teske, 1996; Canfield, 1998; Anbar and Knoll, 2002; Knoll et al., 2004; Narbonne, 2005; Fike et al., 2006; McFadden et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2008; Dahl et al., 2010; Li et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMolybdenum isotopic records across the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary
Wen, H., Carignan, J., Zhang, Y., Fan, H., Cloquet, C., & Liu, S. (2011) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g32055.1 · Cited by 106
Rooney, A. D., Chew, D., & Selby, D. S. (2011) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2011.01.009 · Cited by 107
“A further explanation for the increase in 187Os/188Os isotope composition for the Neoproterozoic is the increased oxygenation of deep waters during the late Neoproterozoic (Canfield and Teske, 1996; Anbar and Knoll, 2002; Canfield et al., 2007; 2008; Scott et al., 2008).”
BackgroundBura‐Nakić, E., Andersen, M. B., Archer, C., de Souza, G. F., Marguš, M., & Vance, D. (2017) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2017.10.023 · Cited by 111
Papineau, D., Purohit, R., Goldberg, T., Pi, D.-H., Shields, G., Bhu, H., Steele, A., & Fogel, M. L. (2009) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2009.03.005 · Cited by 107
Spence, G. H., Heron, D. P. L., & Fairchild, I. J. (2016) · Sedimentology · doi:10.1111/sed.12261 · Cited by 105
“Sedimentology © 2016 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 63, 253–306 S T A T E O F T H E S C IE N C E genation being attained in the late Ediacaran (Scott et al., 2008; Frei et al., 2009; Kendall et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPervasive aerobic nitrogen cycling in the surface ocean across the Paleoproterozoic Era
Kipp, M. A., Stüeken, E. E., Yun, M., Bekker, A., & Buick, R. (2018) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.08.007 · Cited by 107
“Indeed, enrichments of redox-sensitive trace elements in organic-rich shales implicate an expansion of oxygenated seawater during the GOE (Scott et al., 2008; Partin et al., 2013; Kipp et al., 2017), as do sulfur isotope ratios in marine sedimentary rocks, which suggest a waxing and waning seawater…”
BackgroundSelf-citationLiu, J., & Algeo, T. (2020) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2020.02.037 · Cited by 91
Metadata
- Authors
- Scott, C., Lyons, T. W., Bekker, A., Shen, Y., Poulton, S. W., Chu, X., & Anbar, A. D.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Carnegie Institution for Science (US)
- Université du Québec à Montréal (CA)
- Newcastle University (GB)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Scott, C.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2008-03
- Volume
- 452
- Issue
- 7186
- Pages
- 456-459
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2041762395
- Cited by
- 1,098
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 56
- FWCI
- 37.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Danmarks Grundforskningsfond
- NASA Astrobiology Institute
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- Natural Environment Research Council (NE/C518465/2)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- molybdenum, black shales, oxidative weathering, total organic carbon, ocean redox state, atmospheric oxygenation, Neoproterozoic, Precambrian, sulfur cycling, early animal evolution, Precambrian stratigraphy
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Molybdenum, Oceans and Seas, Oxygen, Seawater, Sulfides, Time Factors, Geologic Sediments, History, Ancient
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