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Global exchange and accumulation of non-native plants
Open accessAbstract
All around the globe, humans have greatly altered the abiotic and biotic environment with ever-increasing speed. One defining feature of the Anthropocene epoch is the erosion of biogeographical barriers by human-mediated dispersal of species into new regions, where they can naturalize and cause ecological, economic and social damage. So far, no comprehensive analysis of the global accumulation and exchange of alien plant species between continents has been performed, primarily because of a lack of data. Here we bridge this knowledge gap by using a unique global database on the occurrences of naturalized alien plant species in 481 mainland and 362 island regions. In total, 13,168 plant species, corresponding to 3.9% of the extant global vascular flora, or approximately the size of the native European flora, have become naturalized somewhere on the globe as a result of human activity. North America has accumulated the largest number of naturalized species, whereas the Pacific Islands show the fastest increase in species numbers with respect to their land area. Continents in the Northern Hemisphere have been the major donors of naturalized alien species to all other continents. Our results quantify for the first time the extent of plant naturalizations worldwide, and illustrate the urgent need for globally integrated efforts to control, manage and understand the spread of alien species.
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“Comprehensive accounts are now available on established and/or invasive alien species of vascular plants (van Kleunen et al., 2015, 2019; Pyšek et al., 2017b ), bryophytes (Essl et al., 2015), terrestrial snails (Capinha et al., 2015), ants, spiders [see Dawson et al., 2017 and references therein], fishes (Tedesco et al., 2017), amphibians (Capinha et al., 2017), reptiles (Kraus, 2009, 2015; Capin”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as van Kleunen et al., 2015
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“For vascular plants, the most recent figures report ∼14,000 species with established alien populations in at least one region, constituting ∼4% of the world flora.”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as van Kleunen et al., 2015
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BackgroundScale and season determine the magnitude of invasion impacts on plant communities
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Admixture increases performance of an invasive plant beyond first‐generation heterosis
Li, Y., Stift, M., & van Kleunen, M. (2018) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12926 · Cited by 35
“We therefore concluded that admixture may further boost invasiveness of M. guttatus through heterosis (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSpecies' traits help predict small mammal responses to habitat homogenization by an invasive grass.
Ceradini, J. P., & Chalfoun, A. (2017) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1002/eap.1535 · Cited by 35
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Global proliferation of nonnative plants is a major driver of insect invasions
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“The exchange of plants became a truly global phenomenon since the end of the fifteenth century (di Castri 1989 , van Kleunen et al. 2015 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA latitudinal gradient in Darwin’s naturalization conundrum at the global scale for flowering plants
Fan, S.-Y., Yang, Q., Li, S., Fristoe, T. S., Cadotte, M., Essl, F., Kreft, H., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Weigelt, P., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41607-w · Cited by 34
Self-citationEffects of climate and human activity on the current distribution of amphibians in China
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Self-citationEffects of land-use change and related pressures on alien and native subsets of island communities
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Self-citationGlobal Actions for Managing Cactus Invasions
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“While experiments on competition between aliens and residents typically limit the resident species pool to native species, naturalized alien species also represent a significant proportion of the current resident flora in many parts of the world (Pyšek et al., 2017; van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
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Self-citationIncreases in multiple resources promote competitive ability of naturalized non-native plants
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Silva-Rocha, I., Salvi, D., Carretero, M., & Ficetola, G. (2019) · Diversity and Distributions: A journal of biological invasions and biodiversity · doi:10.1111/ddi.12911 · Cited by 28
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Self-citationUpdating the checklist of the alien flora in Egypt
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Morente‐López, J., Arjona, Y., Pascual, M. S., Reyes-Betancort, J. A., Aguilar, M. J. D. A., Emerson, B. C., Garcia-Gallo, A., Jay‐García, L. S., Naranjo‐Cigala, A., & Patiño, J. (2023) · Journal of Biogeography · doi:10.1111/jbi.14556 · Cited by 26
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Facultative mycorrhizal associations promote plant naturalization worldwide
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Initial plant diversification and dispersal event in upper Silurian of the Prague Basin
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Deterministic responses of biodiversity to climate change through exotic species invasions
Chen, P., Shen, C., Tao, Z.-B., Qin, W.-C., Huang, W., & Siemann, E. (2024) · Nature Plants · doi:10.1038/s41477-024-01797-7 · Cited by 25
“Globally, there are more than 13,000 species of plants, approximately the size of the native European flora, that have been naturalized somewhere else on Earth 40 .”
BackgroundPropagule pressure and an invasion syndrome determine invasion success in a plant community model
Vedder, D., Leidinger, L., & Cabral, J. S. (2021) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.8348 · Cited by 25
“Considering the impending global change scenarios and increased rate of biotic exchange, however, generalizable findings about biological invasions are still urgently needed (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundEriophyid Mites in Classical Biological Control of Weeds: Progress and Challenges
Marini, F., Weyl, P., Vidović, B., Petanović, R., Littlefield, J., Simoni, S., de Lillo, E., Cristofaro, M., & Smith, L. (2021) · Insects · doi:10.3390/insects12060513 · Cited by 25
“Over past decades, international trade and travel has increased exponentially, and with that also the spread of alien species [1].”
BackgroundAzeem, A., Sun, J.-F., Javed, Q., Jabran, K., & Du, D. (2020) · Water · doi:10.3390/w12040934 · Cited by 25
“Invasive plant species require light, water and nutrients for growth development, and CO2 for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration [34].”
BackgroundInfluentialSemeraro, T., Gatto, E., Buccolieri, R., Vergine, M., Gao, Z., de Bellis, L., & Luvisi, A. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16152642 · Cited by 25
“The negative impacts of invasive species are likely to be an increasingly important factor given the explosive rate at which foreign species are being introduced into ecosystems [22,23].”
BackgroundKlonner, G., Dullinger, I., Wessely, J., Bossdorf, O., Carboni, M., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Gattringer, A., Haeuser, E., van Kleunen, M., et al. (2017) · Diversity and Distributions: A journal of biological invasions and biodiversity · doi:10.1111/ddi.12578 · Cited by 25
“These authors aligned the European Garden Flora (EGF; Cullen et al., 2011), the most comprehensive encyclopaedia of ornamental plants in Europe, with the Global Naturalised Alien Flora (GloNAF; van Kleunen et al., 2015; https://glonaf.org/), a global database of naturalized alien plant species.”
BackgroundSelf-citationIdentifying hotspots of alien plant naturalisation in Australia: approaches and predictions
Dodd, A. J., McCarthy, M., Ainsworth, N., & Burgman, M. (2015) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-015-1035-8 · Cited by 25
Xu, M., Fang, M., Anas, M. U. M., Mandrak, N. E., Chu, C., Qian, H., Cao, Y., Liu, C., Cuthbert, R. N., Li, S., et al. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adw4347 · Cited by 23
“Geographic attributes of native communities, such as latitude—which reflects large-scale climate conditions—and geographic area, have also been shown to correlate with non-native species richness ( 30 , 31 ).”
Zhang, B., Hastings, A., Grosholz, E., & Zhai, L. (2023) · Movement Ecology · doi:10.1186/s40462-023-00424-y · Cited by 24
Global flows of insect transport and establishment: The role of biogeography, trade and regulations
Fenn‐Moltu, G., Ollier, S., Bates, O. K., Liebhold, A. M., Nahrung, H. F., Pureswaran, D. S., Yamanaka, T., & Bertelsmeier, C. (2023) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1111/ddi.13772 · Cited by 31
“…region, hereafter referred to as species flows, is largely based on the distribution of already established non-natives (e.g. Capinha et al., 2015; Dawson et al., 2017; van Kleunen et al., 2015), hindering our ability to separate ecological factors from the influence of introduction pressure.”
BackgroundSantamarina, S., Mateo, R. G., Alfaro‐Saiz, E., & Acedo, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2022.1049142 · Cited by 31
Anthropogenic and environmental drivers shape diversity of naturalized plants across the Pacific
Wohlwend, M. R., Craven, D., Weigelt, P., Seebens, H., Winter, M., Kreft, H., Zurell, D., Cabral, J. S., Essl, F., van Kleunen, M., et al. (2021) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1111/ddi.13260 · Cited by 29
“We therefore used raw data at the (mostly) island level from GloNAF version 1.1 (van Kleunen et al., 2015) and aggregated them at the level of the island groups defined in this study.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe role of functional strategies in global plant distribution
Liao, H.-X., Li, D.-J., Zhou, T., Huang, B., Zhang, H., Chen, B.-M., & Peng, S. (2020) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.05476 · Cited by 24
Pyšek, P., Čuda, J., Šmilauer, P., Skálová, H., Chumová, Z., Lambertini, C., Lučanová, M., Ryšavá, H., Trávníček, P., Šemberová, K., et al. (2020) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.5907 · Cited by 24
“Research in plant invasions has progressed in recent years, with data accumulated in global databases (Dawson et al., 2017; Pyšek et al., 2017; van Kleunen et al., 2015, 2018) not only allowing improvement of our knowledge about the distribution of naturalized species in world regions, but also…”
BackgroundSelf-citationImpact of plant invasion on physical, chemical and biological aspects of ecosystems: A review
Lone, P. A., Dar, J. A., Kothandaraman, S., Raha, D., Pandey, P. K., Ray, T., Khare, P. K., & Khan, M. L. (2019) · Tropical Plant Research · doi:10.22271/tpr.2019.v6.i3.067 · Cited by 38
“As the globalization proceeds at a rapid pace, the number of alien species getting introduced into new areas continues to rise (van Kleunen et al. 2015, Helsen et al. 2018).”
BackgroundZhao, C.-Y., Liu, Y.-Y., Shi, X.-P., & Wang, Y.-J. (2019) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113894 · Cited by 24
The unpredictable fate of the single population of a threatened narrow endemic Mediterranean plant
Cogoni, D., Sulis, E., Bacchetta, G., & Fenu, G. (2019) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-019-01757-0 · Cited by 24
Malecore, E. M., Dawson, W., Kempel, A., Müller, G., & Kleunen, M. (2018) · Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13059 · Cited by 24
Self-citationInvasive species denialism: a reply to Ricciardi and Ryan
Sagoff, M. (2018) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-018-1752-x · Cited by 38
“According to this study, ‘‘In total, 13,168 plant species… have become naturalized somewhere on the globe as a result of human activity’’ (van Kleunen et al. 2015, p. 100).”
BackgroundRodríguez, J., Calbi, M., Roiloa, S., & González, L. (2018) · Science of the Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.264 · Cited by 24
Biodiversity, distribution, ecology and management of non-native weeds in Mexico: a review
Espinosa-García, F. J., & Villaseñor, J. L. (2017) · Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad · doi:10.1016/j.rmb.2017.10.010 · Cited by 32
Atchison, J., Gibbs, L., & Taylor, E. (2017) · doi:10.1080/00049182.2016.1265229 · Cited by 24
“It is in this context that we examine environmental volunteerism where volunteers kill European carp, Cyprinus carpio, in circumstances where invasive species are no longer an anomaly but part of the ‘new ecological world order’ (Hobbs et al. 2006, 1; van Kleunen et al. 2015).”
BackgroundJacobs, L., Richardson, D., Lepschi, B., & Wilson, J. R. U. (2017) · doi:10.3897/neobiota.32.9842 · Cited by 24
Tracking Invasive Alien Species (TrIAS): Building a data-driven framework to inform policy
Vanderhoeven, S., Adriaens, T., Desmet, P., Strubbe, D., Backeljau, T., Barbier, Y., Brosens, D., Cigar, J., Coupremanne, M., Troch, R. D., et al. (2017) · Research Ideas and Outcomes · doi:10.3897/rio.3.e13414 · Cited by 26
Self-citationGlobal impacts of exotic eucalypt plantations on wildlife
Iglesias-Carrasco, M., Torres, J., Cruz-Dubon, A., Candolin, U., Wong, B. B. M., & Velo-Antón, G. (2025) · Biological Reviews of The Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.70022 · Cited by 23
Jia, T., Qi, Y., Zhao, H., Xian, X., Li, J., Huang, H., Yu, W., & Liu, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2023.1113474 · Cited by 22
“In Europe alone, there are 12,000 species, 15% of which are known to negatively impact ecosystem biodiversity (Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundBridgehead effects distort global flows of alien species
Bertelsmeier, C., & Ollier, S. (2021) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1111/ddi.13388 · Cited by 27
Role of diversification rates and evolutionary history as a driver of plant naturalization success
Lenzner, B., Magallón, S., Dawson, W., Kreft, H., König, C., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Weigelt, P., van Kleunen, M., Winter, M., et al. (2020) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.17014 · Cited by 23
“The underrepresentation of mainly tropical and subtropical regions of the Southern Hemisphere from the global economic trade network might have strongly discriminated against tropical and subtropical families in the global alien plant species pool (van Kleunen et al., 2015a).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationMurugan, R., Beggi, F., Prabakaran, N., Maqsood, S., & Joergensen, R. (2020) · Soil Ecology Letters · doi:10.1007/s42832-019-0020-z · Cited by 23
Essl, F., Lenzner, B., Courchamp, F., Dullinger, S., Jeschke, J. M., Kühn, I., Leung, B., Moser, D., Roura‐Pascual, N., & Seebens, H. (2019) · NeoBiota · doi:10.3897/neobiota.45.33366 · Cited by 23
Self-citationSynecological farming: Theoretical foundation on biodiversity responses of plant communities
Funabashi, M. (2016) · Plant Biotechnology · doi:10.5511/plantbiotechnology.16.0219a · Cited by 21
Gulzar, R., Wani, S. A., Hassan, T., Reddy, C. S., Shrestha, B. B., Mukul, S. A., Shabbir, A., Iqbal, I., Ranwala, S. M. W., Dorjee, et al. (2023) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-023-03165-6 · Cited by 22
“The Global Naturalized Alien Flora (GloNAF) database, provides a better global picture of naturalized plant species, highlights the huge data gaps, notably in the tropical and temperate Asia, and in many regions of Africa (van Kleunen et al. 2015, 2019).”
InfluentialZhao, Z.-H., Hui, C., Peng, S., Yi, S., Li, Z.-H., Reddy, G. V. P., & van Kleunen, M. (2023) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14485 · Cited by 22
Qian, H. (2022) · Plant Diversity · doi:10.1016/j.pld.2022.12.005 · Cited by 22
Xie, H., Pile, L. S., Yu, M., & Wang, G. G. (2022) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-022-05739-0 · Cited by 24
Pouteau, R., Thuiller, W., Hobohm, C., Brunel, C., Conn, B. J., Dawson, W., Dechoum, M. S., Леонович, Э. А., Essl, F., Fragman‐Sapir, O., et al. (2021) · Global Ecology and Biogeography · doi:10.1111/geb.13316 · Cited by 26
“Of the c. 14,200 vascular plant species native (i.e. both endemic and non- endemic) to Europe, 3,383 have become naturalized somewhere in the world; this is three times more than expected by chance (van Kleunen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- van Kleunen, M., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Pergl, J., Winter, M., Weber, E., Kreft, H., Weigelt, P., Kartesz, J., Nishino, M., Antonova, L. A., Barcelona, J. F., Cabezas, F. J., Cárdenas, D., Cárdenas-Toro, J., Castaño, N., Chacón, E., Chatelain, C., Ebel, A. L., Figueiredo, E., Fuentes, N., Groom, Q. J., Henderson, L., Inderjit, Kupriyanov, A., Masciadri, S., Meerman, J., Morozova, O., Moser, D., Nickrent, D. L., Patzelt, A., Pelser, P. B., Baptiste, M. P., Poopath, M., Schulze, M., Seebens, H., Shu, W.-S., Thomas, J., Velayos, M., Wieringa, J. J., & Pyšek, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Czech Academy of Sciences (CZ)
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (DE)
- University of Potsdam (DE)
- University of Göttingen (DE)
- The Biota of North America Program (US)
- University of Canterbury (NZ)
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Instituto Sinchi (CO)
- Jardin Botanique de Genève (CH)
- University of Coimbra (PT)
- University of Concepción (CL)
- Meise Botanic Garden (BE)
- Agricultural Research Council of South Africa (ZA)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- Universidad de la República de Uruguay (UY)
- University of Belize (BZ)
- Southern Illinois University Carbondale (US)
- Alexander von Humboldt Biological Resources Research Institute (CO)
- Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation (TH)
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (DE)
- Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg (DE)
- Sun Yat-sen University (CN)
- King Saud University (SA)
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center (NL)
- Corresponding author
- van Kleunen, Mark
- ORCID
- van Kleunen, Mark
- Dawson, Wayne
- Essl, Franz
- Pergl, Jan
- Winter, Marten
- Weber, Ewald
- Kreft, Holger
- Weigelt, Patrick
- Barcelona, Julie F.
- Cabezas, Francisco J.
- Chatelain, Cyrille
- Figueiredo, Estrela
- Fuentes, Nicol
- Groom, Quentin J.
- Kupriyanov, Andrey
- Moser, Dietmar
- Nickrent, Daniel L.
- Patzelt, Annette
- Pelser, Pieter B.
- Poopath, Manop
- Seebens, Hanno
- Shu, Wen-sheng
- Thomas, Jacob
- Velayos, Mauricio
- Wieringa, Jan J.
- Pyšek, Petr
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2015-08-19
- Volume
- 525
- Issue
- 7567
- Pages
- 100-103
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W1803950400
- Cited by
- 1,095
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 108 · 2023: 141 · 2022: 93 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 114 · 2018: 91 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 69 · 2015: 12
- FWCI
- 87.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- research.wur.nl
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ASEP (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Nelson Mandela University Research Repository (submittedVersion)
- publish.UP (University of Potsdam) (submittedVersion)
- GRO (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Klima- und Energiefonds
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG– FZT 118, KL 1866/9-1, RVO 67985939, FZT118)
- Grantová Agentura České Republiky (GB14-36079G, RVO 67,985,939, 67985939, 36079G)
- King Saud University
- Georg-August-Universität Göttingen
- Akademie Věd České Republiky (RVO [67985939], 67985939, 14‐36079G)
- Helmholtz-Zentrum für Umweltforschung
- Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad, Gobierno de México
- Deutsches Zentrum für integrative Biodiversitätsforschung Halle-Jena-Leipzig (DFG-FZT 118, FZT 118)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Botany and Plant Ecology Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecological Modeling › Species Distribution and Climate Change
- Keywords
- non-native plants, naturalized species, biological invasions, plant introduction, human-mediated dispersal, Anthropocene, vascular flora, island biogeography, North America, Pacific Islands, Northern Hemisphere, invasive species management
- MeSH terms
- North America, Pacific Islands, Plants, Databases, Factual, Biodiversity, Introduced Species, Phylogeography, Geographic Mapping
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